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soc.culture.jewish FAQ: Observance, Marriage, Women in Judaism (4/12)
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From: SCJ FAQ Maintainer <maintainer@scjfaq.org> Newsgroups: soc.culture.jewish, soc.culture.jewish.moderated Subject: soc.culture.jewish FAQ: Observance, Marriage, Women in Judaism (4/12) Date: Mon, 1 Mar 2004 11:07:27 -0800 (PST) Message-ID: <faq.4_1078168021@shelob.pacificnet.net> X-Autogenerated: Mirror X-Mirrored-by: <faigin@pacificnet.net> URL: http://master.scjfaq.org/faq/ URL: http://www.scjfaq.org/faq/ Summary: Questions about Observance (Holidays, Kashrut, Shabbat) and Women X-Cache: nntpcache 3.0.1 (see http://www.nntpcache.org/) Archive-name: judaism/FAQ/04-Observance Soc-culture-jewish-archive-name: faq.04-Observance Posting-Frequency: Monthly Frequently Asked Questions on Soc.Culture.Jewish Part 4: Observance, Marriage, Women in Judaism [Last Post: Mon Mar 1 11:07:27 US/Pacific 2004] The FAQ is a collection of documents that is an attempt to answer questions that are continually asked on the soc.culture.jewish family of newsgroups. It was written by cooperating laypeople from the various Judaic movements. You should not make any assumption as to accuracy and/or authoritativeness of the answers provided herein. In all cases, it is always best to consult a competent authority--your local rabbi is a good place to start. [2][Got Questions?] Hopefully, the FAQ will provide the answer to your questions. If it doesn't, please drop Email to [3]questions@scjfaq.org. The FAQ maintainer will endeavor to direct your query to an appropriate individual that can answer it. If you would like to be part of the group to which the maintainer directs questions, please drop a note to the FAQ maintainer at [4]maintainer@scjfaq.org. The deceased sages described within are of blessed memory, (assume a Z"L or ZT"L after their names) and the sages alive today should live to see long and good days (assume SHLITA). May Hashem grant complete recovery to the ill. Individual honorifics are omitted. The FAQ was produced by a committee and is a cooperative work. The contributors never standardized on transliteration scheme from Hebrew, Aramaic, Yiddish, or Ladino to English. As a result, the same original word might appear with a variety of spellings. This is complicated by the fact that there are regional variations in the pronunciation of Hebrew. In some places, the common spelling variations are mentioned; in others--not. We hope that this is not too confusing. In general, throughout this FAQ, North American (US/Canada) terms are used to refer to the movements of Judaism. Outside of North American, Reform is Progressive or Liberal Judaism; Conservative is Masorti or Neolog, and Orthodoxy is often just "Judaism". Even with this, there are differences in practice, position, and ritual between US/Canada Reform and other progressive/liberal movements (such as UK Progressive/ Liberal), and between US/Canada Conservative and the conservative/Masorti movement elsewhere. Where appropriate, these differences will be highlighted. The goal of the FAQ is to present a balanced view of Judaism; where a response is applicable to a particular movement only, this will be noted. Unless otherwise noted or implied by the text, all responses reflect the traditional viewpoint. This list should be used in conjunction with the Soc.Culture.Jewish [5]reading lists. Similar questions can be found in the books referenced in those lists. There are also numerous other Jewish FAQs available on the Internet that are not part of the SCJ FAQ/RL suite. An index to these may be found at [6]www.scjfaq.org/otherfaqs.html This FAQ is a volunteer effort. If you wish to support the maintenance of the FAQ, please see [7]Section 20, Question 99 for more information. Reproduction of this posting for commercial use is subject to restriction. See Part 1 for more details.
Subject: ORGANIZATION This portion of the FAQ contains answers to the following questions: Section 5: Jewish Holidays 1. [5]What are the different holidays? 2. [6]What are the dates of the upcoming Jewish holidays? 3. [7]How can I get a Jewish calendar 4. [8]Why do some people take off one day, and others two? 5. [9]Why does the Jewish day start at sundown? 6. [10]What are the origins of the Chanukah Dreidel? 7. [11]Is it appropriate for Christians to "celebrate" Pesach using the form of a seder meal? 8. [12]What are the months of the Jewish Year? 9. [13]How does Judaism measure the day? 10. [14]Are the Four Questions asked on Pesach in the Torah? 11. [15]What are the different days of the Jewish week? 12. [16]How are Yahrzeits observed in Leap Years? 13. [17]What happened to the observance on 14 Nisan as Passover? 14. [18]For Mother's Day, how should one bless their mothers? Section 6: Jewish Dietary Law and Kashrut 1. [5]What is Kosher? Doesn't a rabbi just bless the food? 2. [6]How can I learn about Kashrut? Is there a "Kosher" FAQ? 3. [7]There are a wide variety of kosher symbols. How do I learn who's behind them? 4. [8]I'm going to be in (insert city here). How do I find the kosher restaurants? 5. [9]Do I need to have a kosher kitchen and kosher home to keep kosher? 6. [10]I have heard that Polish Orthodox Jews wait 6 hours between eating milchig and fleishig and Dutch Orthodox Jews wait about an hour. Why? 7. [11]Why do Sephardim and Ashkenazim have different customs regarding permissible foods on Pesach (Passover)? 8. [12]I'm a vegetarian health-food proponent. Is kosher food healthier? 9. [13]Is vegetarianism kosher? 10. [14]What process is involved in Kosher Slaughter? 11. [15]I work in a prison, and I have an inmate that is demanding Kosher Food? How do I know if his claim is justified? 12. [16]What are the issues involving Filet Minion? 13. [17]Why don't Jews eat Pork? 14. [18]Would the laws of Kashrut prevent Mad Cow Disease? 15. [19]Is Monkfish Kosher? 16. [20]Why do Jews separate Milk and Meat? 17. [21]Must Jews use wine? 18. [22]Are there parts of a kosher animal that cannot be eaten? 19. [23]I have a friend coming over that keeps Kosher. What do I do? Section 7: Shabbat Observance 1. [5]What is the Jewish Sabbath and why is it on Saturday? 2. [6]Why do my Orthodox Jewish friends leave work early on Fridays and before Jewish holidays? 3. [7]Why can't Jews use electrical appliances and motor vehicles on Shabbat? 4. [8]Why are there 18 minutes from the time candle lighting starts on Shabbat until the last time you can light? 5. [9]I've heard that Jews can't tear on Shabbat? Why? What is "work"? 6. [10]How do people know when to light candles in the Arctic? 7. [11]What is the significance of Challah? 8. [12]Why do women wave their hands three times before lighting Shabbat [or Holiday] candles? 9. [13]What is an Eruv? 10. [14]If your home is burning, can you put out the fire on Shabbat? 11. [15]What Medical Procedures May Be Performed on Shabbat? 12. [16]What happens on Shabbat? 13. [17]Do Conservative Jews play musical instruments on Shabbat? 14. [18]Why is there a prohibition on travel on Shabbat? 15. [19]Can an observant Jew use a camera on Shabbat? Section 8: Woman and Marriage 1. [5]What role do women play in Judaism? 2. [6]What is the Conservative view of the role of women in Judaism? 3. [7]What is the Reform view of the role of women in Judaism? 4. [8]What is the Orthodox view of the role of women in Judaism? 5. [9]Is it true that Orthodox men bless G-d every morning for not making them a woman? What do you mean, this isn't terrible? 6. [10]I've heard polygamy is permissible among Sephardic and Yemenite Jews. Doesn't Judaism mandate monogamy? 7. [11]What does clean/unclean refer to? 8. [12]What is "Niddah"? 9. [13]I've heard that Orthodox men can't touch women. Is this true? 10. [14]Are there any rituals for purification after childbirth for women? 11. [15]What is the Jewish position on contraception and abortion? 12. [16]How does Judaism view Marriage? 13. [17]How do Jews find Mates? 14. [18]What is a Jewish Marriage? 15. [19]What happens before a Jewish Wedding? 16. [20]What happens during a Jewish Wedding? 17. [21]What happens after a Jewish Wedding? 18. [22]What should I wear to a Jewish wedding? 19. [23]Why is the glass broken at Jewish weddings? 20. [24]What is a Ketubah? 21. [25]What are the "Seven Blessings"? 22. [26]What does Judaism say about premarital sex? 23. [27]What are some good wedding greetings? 24. [28]Can a wife refuse to have marital relations with her husband? 25. [29]What should a man do if his wife leaves him for another man? 26. [30]Can a Jewish woman who has not been to a mikvah get married in an Orthodox wedding? 27. [31]Is it possible for a Cohanim to marry a divorced Jewish woman? 28. [32]I've heard Jews can't get married on certain days. What are they? 29. [33]What is the role of the parents or the rabbi at a wedding? 30. [34]How long after a spouse dies can the surviving partner remarry? Must they marry their spouse's younger brother? 31. [35]What relationships are prohibited? 32. [36]What is the restriction on woman to sing in public and infront of men? 33. [37]What can be done if the wife refuses to sign the get (divorce decree)?
Subject: Question 5.1: What are the different holidays? Answer: The holidays are described in the list below. R' Donin's book To Be a Jew gives a good overview of the holidays from a traditional perspective. The following is based on a summary posted on the net by Robert Kaiser, which in turn was based on material from A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice by Rabbi Isaac Klein, published by The Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Note that liberal Jews do not observe all of these holidays, nor do they all follow the practice of two-days of observance of certain holidays in the diaspora. The principal year-cycle events observed by liberal Jews are: Shabbat, Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Simchat Torah, Chanukkah, Tu B'Shevat, Purim, Pesach (Passover), Lag B'Omer, Shavuot, and Tish'a B'Av. Note also that as the Jewish day runs from sundown to sundown, holidays start the evening of the secular day before secular calendar date of the holiday. Rosh Hashanah (Tishri 1) Also known as Yom Hadin, Yom Hazikaron (Day of Remembrance) and Yom Teruah (Day of the sounding of the shofar). In traditional congregations, the shofar is not sounded when Rosh Hashanah falls on the Sabbath. This holiday celebrates the creation of the world, and as such is the new year for calculating calendar years, sabbatical and jubilee years, vegetable tithes, and tree-planting (determining the age of a tree). This holiday is characterized by the blowing of the shofar. During the afternoon of the first day, many follow the practice of tashlikh, symbolically casting away sins by throwing stones into the waters. Rosh ha-Shanah, the 1st of Tishri, never falls on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, in order that Yom Kippur should never fall on a Friday or Sunday and Hoshana Rabbath should not fall on the Sabbath. The one practice unique to Rosh Hashanah is the sounding of the shofar, in accord with the biblical command "... it is a day when the horn is sounded" (Num. 29:1). Since it falls on the first day of the month, when new months were proclaimed by the Sanhedrin on the basis of the testimony of witnesses, there existed an uncertainty as to when exactly Rosh Hashanah would be. Even when the Temple stood, it was sometimes necessary to celebrate two days of Rosh Hashanah due to the late arrival of witnesses. As a result it was decided to celebrate two days every year. Unlike other holidays, this is unrelated to the diaspora. Rosh Hashanah is also known as yom ha'din, "the day of judgement", when according to the Talmud, God determines who will be inscribed in the "book of life" and who will be inscribed in the "book of death" for the coming year. The decision is made on Rosh Hashanah and sealed ten days later at the conclusion of Yom Kippur. One's behavior in the interim can supposedly alter a harsh decree, thus the period from the beginning of Rosh Hashanah to the conclusion of Yom Kippur is known as the Ten Days of Repentance. During the Middle Ages, it also became common to refer to Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur as the Days of Awe. After the service in the synagogue, it is customary for worshippers to wish one another le-Shanah tovah tehatem ve-tikatev (May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year). It is traditional to eat bread and apples dipped in honey followed by the meditation, "May it be Your will to grant us a good and sweet year." In Ashkenazi communities, a special custom known as Tashlikh occurs; it invokes the recitation of biblical verses and a prayer near a body of water. It is performed on the first day of Rosh Hashanah (unless the first day falls on the Sabbath, in which case it is deferred to the second day). The custom symbolizes purification of sin in the water. Fast of Gedaliah (Tishri 3) This fast commemorates the slaying of Gedaliah Ben Akhikam, whom Nebuchadnezzar appointed governor of Judah after the first destruction of the Temple (Jeremiah 40:7, II Kings 25:22.). He was assasinated on the third of Tishri (582 BC) by Ishmael son of Nethaniah of the royal family. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, had appointed Gedaliah governor of the Jews who remained in Eretz Israel after the destruction of the First Temple. After he was murdered, large numbers of the people fled to Egypt (Jer. 40 and 41), and the last vestige of Jewish autonomy in Judah came to an end. His death was the final blow to hopes that the Jewish state might survive the Babylonian domination. It is mentioned in the Torah (Zec. 8:19) as the "fast of the seventh month". The sages established the fast in "order to demonstrate that the death of the righteous is equivalent to the destruction of the Temple, which is also commemorated by the fast" (Rosh ha-Shanah 18b). Yom Kippur (Tishri 10) The day of repentance. The holiest and most solemn day of the year. Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation. It is described in the Torah as "It shall be a Sabbath of complete rest for you" (Lev. 23:32). Traditionally, there are prohibitions on eating, drinking, bathing, anointing the body, wearing leather shoes, and conjugal relations. Most of these prohibitions are followed across the spectrum of Judaism--such is the importance of this holy day. The fast on Yom Kippur is the only fast which can take place on the Sabbath. Yom Kippur services begin with Kol Nidrei, which must be recited before sunset. A Talit is donned for evening prayers--the only evening service of the year in which this is done. The Ne'ilah service is a special service held only on the day of Yom Kippur, and deals with the closing of the holiday. Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar, which marks the conclusion of the fast. The Day of Atonement concludes the Ten Days of Repentance that began on Rosh Hashanah; it is regarded as the day on which ones fate is sealed for the coming year. At one timem the Temple ritual performed by the high priest on the Day of Atonement was the most important event of the whole year. It was the only time he entered the Holy of Holies in order to atone for the sins of the children of Israel. The precise order of his activities is outlined in the Torah in the Book of Leviticus (Ch. 16) and is described in the talmndic tractate (Yoma). After the destruction of the Temple the notion of penitence became the main feature of the Day of Atonement when the Jew confesses his sins. A main feature of the services of the day is the confession, of which two versions are read. The long confession of 44 double, alphabetically arranged lines begins: "For the sin wherein we have sinned ..." while the shorter form is made up of single words or phrases, again in alphabetical order, beginning with Ashamnu (We have trespassed). Sukkot (Tishri 15) The third Pilgrimage festival, it is also known as The Feast of Booths (Tabernacles), The Feast of Ingathering, or just simply The Hag (The Festival). Sukkot is an eight day festival: the first two days are celebrated as full holidays, the following five days (Hol Hamo'ed) are weekdays that retain some aspects of the festival, the seventh day (Hoshanah Rabbah) and eighth (Shemini Atzeret) days have special observances of their own. Liberal congregations typically only celebrate the first and eighth days. Sukkot is also called "zman simchaseinu" (the time of our rejoicing). This is because the Torah tells us that at that time when we harvest it is a time for rejoicing. We also rejoice in the coming start of a new cycle of Torah, as Simchat Torah ends the Sukkot holiday. Succot is also known as Hag ha-Asif, "The Festival of the Ingathering", due to the fact that it falls during the season when the final summer produce is gathered from the field. Another name is simply Ha-Hag, "The Holiday" par excellence (Ex. 23:16, II Chron. 7:8). The first day of Succot is a full holiday on which work is prohibited. The next six days have their own special regulations, but work is permitted under most circumstances. Outside Eretz Israel, the second day of Succot is also observed as a full holiday and the following five days are hol ha-mo'ed. Succot has a number of unique observances. During the entire seven days (prior to Sheini Atzeret), one is required to dwell "in the succah", a temporary structure whose roof must be made of materials that grow from the ground, e.g. palm fronds, tree branches, bamboo poles. Dwelling in the succah commemorates the temporary structures in which the Israelites dwelt during their 40 years wandering after the Exodus from Egypt (Lev. 23:42-43). On each of the seven days of Succot, except the Sabbath, the Four Species - the palm branch (lulav), citron (etrog), myrtle, and willow - are taken up (after the appropriate benediction) and waved. The species are held also during the recitation of Hallel, and during the recitation of Hoshanot, when the entire congregation joins in a procession encircling the bimah. One such procession is held as part of the Shaharit service on each of the seven days. The seventh day of Succot, i.e. the last day of hol ha-mo'ed, is known also by the name Hoshana Rabbah, "The Great Hoshana." On Hoshana Rabbah seven such processions are held during and after which appropriate prayers are recited. After these willow branches are beaten on the ground. Sukkot commemorates the life of the Israelites in the desert during their journey to the promised land. During their wandering in the desert they lived in booths (Sukkot). Four species of plants are used to celebrate the holiday: the lulav (palm branch), etrog (lemon-like citron), myrtle, and willow. The etrog is handled separately, while the other three species are bound together, and are collectively referred to as the lulav. There is a special commandment in the Torah to rejoice on Succot, "You shall hold the Feast of Booths for seven days. You shall rejoice in your festival .. and you shall have nothing but joy" (Deut. 16:13-15). In the Temple period, an observance unique to Succot was the Simhat Bet ha-Sho'evah that accompanied the special water libations of Succot, and the celebrations at that time were especially joyous. Once in every seven years, during Succot at the termination of the Sabbatical Year (Shemitah), there was a public reading of certain passages of the Book of Deuteronomy. This reading, known as hakhel, is commanded in Deuteronomy 31:10-13. During the five intermediate days of Sukkot, it is customary to read the book of Ecclesiastes. Hosha'nah Rabbah (The seventh day of Sukkot). This day closes the period of repentance that began on Rosh Hashanah. Tradition has made this day into a sequel to the Days of Awe, lengthening the period of penitence and postponing the day when final sentence is to be rendered. On this day the worshippers go round the bimah of the synagogue seven times while holding the four species. During the circuits, piyyutim are recited with the refrain Hoshana (Save us, we beseech thee). The name Hoshana Rabbah (the great hoshana) derives from the sevenfold circuit. The source of this custom is in Temple worship. During the festival of Succot, according to tradition, the world is judged for water, and it was the custom to take branches of the willow and go around the alter saying "O Lord, deliver us! O Lord, let us prosper!" (PS. 118:25). Each day the alter would be circled once, and on the seventh day seven times, The custom was then to beat the ground with the willow branch after saying the hoshanot prayers. In the Talmud, Hoshana Rabbah is referred to as a day when everyone comes to the synagogue. Its special character was emphasized during the time of the geonim, who saw it as the day in which each human being receives from heaven a note on which his fate is registered. And so there are those who greet each other on this day with the Aramaic blessing a pitka tava, or in Yiddish gut kveitl. Many and varied liturgical customs have developed for Hoshana Rabbah. The most widespread are the inclusion of the additional Sabbath and festival psalms in the Shaharit (morning) service and the introduction of High Holidays melody and usage for the ritual of taking out the Torah from the ark. Another custom is to remain awake studying Torah throughout the night. This custom was already known in the thirteenth century, and its source is in the need to give additional time to those who had not yet finished reading the Torah and needed to finish by Simhat Torah. Shemini Atzeret (Tishri 22) The eighth day of Sukkot. In the Talmud it is written that "the eighth day [of Sukkot] is a separate festival", so Sukkot is really observed as seven days, and Shemini Atzeret is observed as a separate holiday. It marks the beginning of the rainy season in Israel. The holiday is referred to in the Bible as atzeret, which means assembly or closing. It is a closing in that it follows the seven days of Succot and closes that holiday and the Tishri holiday season. Thus the name Shemini Atzeret means the closing or assembling of the eighth day, although obligations of Succot are not observed. By rabbinic tradition, Shemini Atzeret celebrates the conclusion of the annual cycle of the reading of the Torah. This celebration is known as Simhat Torah. In the Diaspora (exile) Shemini Atzeret is a two-day festival, with the Torah reading concluded on the second day, and it is common to refer to the second day as Simhat Torah and only to the first day as Shemini Atzeret. In Israel, where the festival lasts but one day, the two names are used interchangeably. In the Diaspora, a few observances of Succot "spill over" into Shemini Atzeret, and according to some customs, the meals on that day are taken in the succah, although the benediction recited when eating in the succah is omitted. On the other hand, the benediction She-heheyann, marking the advent of a new holiday, is recited. In the Diaspora, the ceremony of bidding farewell to the succah is performed on the first day of Shemini Atzeret, whereas in Israel it is performed on the seventh and final day of Succot. The prayer for rain (Tefillat Geshem) is recited on Shemini Atzeret and from the time of its recitation, the phrase mashiv ha-ruah u-morid ha-geshem (He causes the wind to blow and the rain to fall) is inserted in the second benediction of the Amidah. This continues until Passover when the phrase is replaced with morid ha-tal (He brings dew). Among Ashkenazi Jews, the memorial prayer, Yizkor, is recited on Shemini Atzeret. Simhat Torah (Tishri 23) The celebration that marks the conclusion of the annual cycle of readings of the Torah (Keri'ar ha-Torah) in the synagogue. Simhat Torah ia a rabbinic institution timed to coincide with the biblical festival Shemini Atzeret, the eighth day of Succot, and which in Eretz Israel lasts but one day. Consequently, in Eretz Israel, Simhat Torah and Shemini Atzeret are in practice one and the same holiday. In the Diaspora (exile), where Shemini Atzeret lasts for two days, each day is popularly known by a different name: the first day as Shemini Atzeret, and the second day, when the reading of the final portion of Deuteronomy is concluded, as Simhat Torah. The last portion of the Torah is read on this day. The following Shabbat the reading of the Torah starts again at the beginning of Bereshis (Genesis). Festivities begin in the evening with Ma'ariv. There are seven hakafot (processions) of the Torah around the Synagogue. Services are joyous, and humorous deviations from the standard service are allowed, and even expected. In antiquity there were actually two different traditions with regard to the weekly Torah readings. In Eretz Israel, the cycle lasted three years. In the Babylonian tradition, the cycle began on the first Sabbath after the holidays of the month of Tishri. This became the Sabbath of Genesis (Shabbath Bereshit). The cycle was completed a year later on the last of the Tishri holidays, i.e. Shemini Atzeret. In time, all Jewish communities adopted the Babylonian system. The central features of the Simhat Torah celebrations are the hakkafot - the perambulations around the synagogue, with the participants carrying the scrolls of the Torah, to the accompaniment of joyous singing and dancing. The hakkafot are held both in the Arvit and in the Shaharit services. After the morning hakkafot, three scrolls are taken from the holy ark for the Torah reading service. From the first scroll, the final portion of Deuteronomy is read to conclude the entire Torah; from the second scroll, the first chapter of Genesis with a few additional verses in order to indicate there is no pause in the cycle of the Torah readings; while from the third scroll, the appropriate maftir is read relating to the ancient sacrificial service for Shemini Atzeret. According to custom, everyone is called for an aliyah la-Torah, and different practices have developed in this connection. In some congregations, the Torah reading is repeated several times in order to accommodate all the worshippers with an aliyah in other groups of worshippers ascend together for the reading; while in most non-Orthodox synagogues women worshippers also approach the bimah for the aliyot. Because of the emphasis on the Torah as the heritage of every Jew, even young children who have not yet reached Bar Mitzvah age are honored with special aliyah. They come up to the bimah accommpanied by an adult who leads them in the traditional blessing, as a large tallit is held over them. The person honored with the last aliyah la-Torah is named Hatan Torah, the Bridegroom of the Law, while the one called for the first aliyah of the Genesis portion is named Hatan Bereshit, the Bridegroom of Genesis. In modern Israel, the custom had developed to organize a second hakkafot celebration on the night after the conclusion of the festival. These second hakkafot have become public celebrations and are frequently held to the accompaniment of joyous orchestral music. Chanukah (Kislev 25) Also known as Hag Ha'urim (The Festival of Lights). The story of Chanukah is preserved in the books of the First and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the Tanakh, but are part of the Apocrypha (Hebrew historical and religious material that was not codified as part of the Bible.) The miracle of Chanukah is referred to in the Talmud, but not in the books of the Maccabees. It marks the defeat of Assyrian forces who had tried to prevent Israel from practicing Judaism. Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed the overwhelming forces, and rededicated the Temple. The eight day festival is marked by the kindling of lights with a special Menorah, called a Chanukiah. The story of Chanukkah begins in the reign of Alexander the Great, who conquered Syria, Egypt and Palestine, but allowed the lands under his control to continue observing their own religions and retain a certain degree of autonomy. During this time, many Jews assimilated much of Hellenistic (Greek) culture, adopting the language, the customs and the dress of the Greeks, in much the same way that Jews in America today blend into the secular American society. More than a century later, a successor of Alexander, Antiochus IV, was in control of the region. He began to oppress the Jews severely, placing a Hellenistic priest in the Temple, massacring Jews, prohibiting the practice of the Jewish religion, and desecrating the Temple by requiring the sacrifice of pigs (a non-kosher animal) on the altar. Two groups opposed Antiochus: a basically nationalistic group led by Mattathias the Hasmonean and his son Judah Maccabee, and a religious traditionalist group known as the Chasidim, the forerunners of the Pharisees (no connection to the modern Chasidism). They joined forces in a revolt against both the assimilation of the Hellenistic Jews and oppression by the Selucid Greek government. The revolution succeeded and the Temple was rededicated. According to tradition, at the time of the rededication, there was very little oil left that had not been defiled by the Greeks. Oil was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was supposed to burn throughout the night every night. There was only enough oil to burn for one day, yet miraculously, it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of oil for the menorah. An eight day festival was declared to commemorate this miracle. Note that the holiday commemorates the miracle of the oil, not the military victory: Jews do not glorify war. Chanukkah candles should be set at the doorway, or by the window in a place where they can be seen from the outside. This is in order to "publicize the miracle" (Heb. pirsume nisa). Since one may not use the candles for any other pupose, not even to light from candle to candle, one special additional candle is used, called the shamash (the "serving candle"). Some use wicks soaked in oil, but wax candles are perfectly acceptable halakhically. There is significance to how the candles are lit. The menorah in the Temple was lit in two stages: the middle and rightmost were lit, then the incense altar was set up for the day, then the other five -- from right to left. We traditionally light the Chanukah menorah from left to right. This is because over the course of the holiday, we fill the menorah from right to left. The first day we light only the rightmost oil / candle / bulb, the second day the rightmost two, etc... And on each day you want to start lighting with the new candle (or whatever) so you end up starting with the leftmost one. After the lighting of the candles the Hanukkah hymn Ma'oz Tzur is sung. It is customary not to do any work during the time the candles are burning, for this is the hour when all the family may sit together and enjoy the traditional foods of the festival, such as potatoe pancakes (latkes) and doughnuts (sufganiyot) and play the traditional spinning top game (dreydel). It is also customary to give money to children as a Hanukkah present. In the prayer services, the Al ha-Nissim paragraph is added to the Amidah and to the Grace After Meals the full Hallel is said. After the morning Amidah, each day the Torah is read from Numbers (7:1-89), describing the sacrifices which were brought by the princes at the dedication of the Temple. The Fast of the Tenth of Tevet (Tevet 10) The fast marks the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by the forces of Nebuchadnezzar, and is thus connected with the destruction of Jerusalem. "And in the ninth year of his reign, on the tenth day of the tenth month, Nebuchadnezzar moved against Jerusalem with his whole army. He besieged it, and they built towers against it all round" (II Kg. 25:1). The prophet Ezekiel was commanded to "record this date, this exact day" (Ezek. 24:2). Asarah be-Tevet is the fast mentioned in the Book of Zechariah as the "fast of the tenth month" (Zech. 8:19). All the general regulations and customs associated with public fast days are observed, including the recitation of special selihot on the particular theme of the day. If the fast falls on Friday, it is not moved to Thursday or Sunday, since it is mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel as the "exact day." This is not observed by liberal Jews. The Israeli Chief Rabbinate has chosen Asarah be-Tevet as Yom ha-Kaddish ha-Klali, the memorial day for those who perished in the Holocaust whose day of death is unknown. Tu B'shevat (Shevat 15) The day designed as Rosh ha-Shonah la-Ilanot - the New Year for Trees. This day was set aside in the Mishna on which to bring fruit tithes. It is still celebrated in modern times. Fruit that began to grow after the flower stage (or to ripen, according to Maimonides and the geonim, before Tu bi-Shevat, belongs to the previous year. Fruit reaching the stage of development after Tu bi-Shevat belongs to the new year. The consequences of this determination is whether ma'aser sheni, the "second" tithe (first, second, fourth, and fifth years of the seven year cycle), or ma'aser ani, the tithe for the poor (third and sixth years of the seven year cycle) are to be taken from the fruit. The importance of this determination stems from the prohibition against setting aside fruit from the new year's crop as a tithe for the previous year's crop. To facilitate compliance with the commandments of orlah and fourth year's fruits, this date is used to determine the first four years that the tree bears fruit. Tu bi-Shevat also marks the beginning of the second year in a tree's life, so long as it has taken root some time before Tu bi-Shevat. This date was chosen "because most of the winter rains are over" (RH. 14a) and the fruit has begun to ripen. In the Diaspora (exile), Tu bi-Shevat has lost its halakhic and agricultural significance, yet it is still regarded as a festive day. Thus, no fasting or eulogizing is permitted, nor is the Tahanun prayer recited. Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed and his disciples began the custom of eating fruit on this day. For this purpose, they composed liturgical poems (piyyutim) and a seder for Tu bi-Shevat eve, during which they drank four cups of wine. This custom was adopted first by varios Sephardi communities, and then by Aschkenazi Jewry who initiated the custom to eat on Tu bi-Shevat the fruit for which Eretz Israel is famous. In modern Israel, this is the day when children plant trees in the forests and in public places. Fast of Esther (Adar 13) A fast held on the 13th of Adar, the day preceding Purim. When the 13th of Adar falls on the Sabbath the fast is moved back to the preceding Thursday, the 11th. Ta'anit Ester is marked by the usual observances of fast days, including the recitation of penitential prayers (selihot) and the reading at both Shaharit and Minhah of Exodus 30:11-14 (Va-Yedab). It commemorates the fasts of Mordecai, Esther, and the Jews of Shushan in reaction to the decree of Haman to liquidate the entire Jewish people. According to the Talmud and other sources, the 13th of Adar was formerly a feast day celebrating the decisive victory of Judah Maccabee over the Syrian general Nicanor. Because no fasting was permitted on "Nicanor's Day", the Fast of Esther was held after Purim. But that usage was annulled and the Fast of Esther was shifted more appropriately to the day before Purim. Purim (Adar 14) This festival commemorates the events found in the Book of Esther. The Shabbat preceding Purim is called Shabbat Zachor (the Sabbath of remembrance). The day before Purim - Adar 13 - is the Fast of Esther. The book of Esther is written in the form of a scroll - the Megillah. It is chanted on Purim in the evening, and on the next day after the Torah reading. The holiday commemorates the Jewish people's escape from extermination at the hands of Haman, minister to the Persian king Ahasuerus. The word Purim means "lots", and the holiday is so named as a reminder of the lots cast by Haman to determine on what date the slaughter of the Jews would commence. The 13th of Adar was the day marked for the Jews' destruction until a royal decree rescinded the order, enabling the Jews to rout their enemies within the Persian empire. On the 14th, the Jews rested and celebrated their victory; thereafter it became the day on which Purim was observed in most locales. In leap years, Purim is celebrated during Adar II. In such years, the 14th of Adar I is called Purim Katan (Little Purim) and is marked by the omission of certain penitential prayers normally recited on weekdays. The following rabbinic commandments are observed on Purim: 1. The reading of the Megillah (the Book of Esther, which narrates the story of Purim; it must be handwritten on a scroll of parchment) twice; once during the evening and once on the day of Purim. When the reader mentions the name of Haman, it is customary for the assembled to make loud noises in order to "blot out" the name of the oppressor. 2. Mishloah Manot, the sending of gifts of prepared food to friends and neighbours. At least two types of food must be sent to at least one person. 3. Se'udat Purim, a festive meal (se'udat mitzvah). The meal is usually held in the afternoon, although it may be held in the morning. The historicity of the story as recorded in the Book of Esther, as well as its apparent lack of a deep spiritual lesson, has been questioned by some critical scholars. However, it would seem that the main character of the festival is of a carnival celebration. Since the Middle Ages, custom developed to masquerade on Purim. Amongst Aschkenazim, a popular amusement became the commical plays known as Purim Shpiel. In modern Israel, carnival parades (Adloyada) are organized in the streets. In the course of Jewish history, it often occured that individuals and communities who had been saved in a miraculous fashion established a special "Purim" each year to commemorate the date. The best known of such "private Purims" is that of the Jews of Frankfurt-am-Main, commemorating the community's deliverance in 1616. Frankfurt's notorius anti-Semite, Vincent Fettmilch, who called himself the new Haman, was hanged, and the Jews whom he had expelled returned to their homes. As a result of the events of that period, the Jews of Frankfurt proclaimed the 27th of Elul as a day of fasting and repentance, and the 20th of Adar as Purim Winz - the Purim of Vincent. Shushan Purim (Adar 15) In the Book of Esther, the rejoicing in the walled city of Shushan took place one day later (Adar 15) than elsewhere (Adar 14). Therefore, this day has come to be known as Shushan Purim. This is because the Jews of Shushan, capital of Persia, were granted a one-day extension to eliminate their enemies; hence, their celebrations began on the 15th. Since Shushan itself was a walled city, it was decreed that in deference to the cities of the Land of Israel, which lay in ruin at the time, cities walled at the time of the Israelite conquest would celebrate on the same date as the Jews of Shushan. The 15th is, therefore known as Shushan Purim. To the present day, Purim is observed on Adar 15 in such cities --- most notably Jerusalem --- as were walled cities at the time of the events described in the Book of Esther. New Year for Kings (Nisan 1) Nisan is the first month of the Hebrew calendar; in Mishnaic times it was celebrated as the New Year for Kings and months. In biblical times, kings reckoned the years of their reign from the first of Nisan. If a king mounted the throne on the previous day, then the Ist of Nisan marked the beginning of the "second year" of his reign. In addition to this "new year", the Mishna sets up three other New Year's: Elul 1, for animal tithes, Tishrei 1 (Rosh HaShanah), and Shevat 15, the New Year for Trees/fruit tithes. Ever since the Babylonian diaspora, only the Rosh HaShanah and Tu B'Shevat are still celebrated. Tzom Bechorot: The Fast of the First Born (Nisan 14) In commemoration of the slaying of the first-born sons of the Egyptians as the Tenth Plague visited on Pharaoh, while their Hebrew counterparts were "passed over" (i.e. spared, hence the English name Passover for Pesach), first-born sons are required to observe a minor fast on the day before Passover. However, if they attend a simcha (joyous occasion) such as a wedding or a siyum (a celebration marking the completion of the study of a tractate of the Talmud), they are allowed to break the fast. Therefore most Orthodox synagogues arrange for a siyum on that day. Pesach (Nisan 15) The first Pilgrimage Festival (recall that Nisan, not Tishri, is the first month of the Hebrew calendar). Pesach commemorates the liberation of the Israelites from Egypt. The first seder is on the 14th. On the night of the 15th, the second seder is held, and the counting of the Omer starts. The Omer is a counting down of the days from the time of the departure from Egypt, until the time the Torah was received at Mount Sinai. Pesach is also called "zman cheruteinu" (the time of our freedom), because it is the time when the Jewish people were freed from Egyptian slavery. The holiday is called the "Passover" because God "passed over" the Israelite houses when smiting the Egyptians with the tenth plague (Ex. 12:23, 12:27). It is also called the Festival of Unleavened Bread since the only bread that may be eaten during the festival is unleavened (matzah), and the Festival of Spring because of the command to "observe the month of Abib(spring) and offer a passover sacrifice" (Deut. 16:1). Because the Jewish lunar year is 11 days shorter than the solar year, the Jewish calendar was adjusted so Passover should always fall in the spring. Passover's first and last days ( in the Diaspora, the first two and last two) are holy days on which most work is forbidden, and the days in between are known as hol ha'mo'ed ("the festival's weekdays") or "the intermediate days." The principal observance of the festival is the eating of matzah and the removal of all hametz (leaven or any products containing it) from one's abode prior to the festival. In antiquity, the central Passover rite was the sacrifice of the paschal offering - ofter called simply "the Pesah" - on the 14th of Nisan, and the eating of it that evening together with matzah and maror (bitter herbs). The Samaritans continue to perform this rite on Mount Gerizim, but for other Jews the Seder became the central rite after the destruction of the Second Temple. The Passover prayer services are essentially the same as those of other pilgrim festivals. The first days Musaf service includes the prayer of dew , the petition for rain (Heb. Tefillat Geshem) , is no longer recited. In the Arvit (evening) service for the second day, the counting of the Omer begins. The laws of Passover are discussed in Pesahim, the third tractate in the Order Mo'ed. It contains ten chapters with Gemara in both Talmuds and Tosefta. Sefirah (The counting) Sefirat Ha'Omer Also known simply as The Omer, this 49 day period between Pesach and Shavuot is defined by the Torah as the period to bring special offerings to the temple in Jerusalem; This makes physical the spiritual connection between Pesach and Shavuot. Pesach marks the liberation from Egypt, and Shavuot marks the receiving of the Torah. The counting begins the second night of Pesach. Traditionally, the Sefirah is a time of sadness. During this period, 12,000 of Rabbi Akiva's disciples died. This occurred during the Hadrianic persecution that followed the Bar Kokhba revolt, in which Rabbi Akiva was involved. During this period (with one exception), customarily no weddings take place, no hair is cut, and no activities occur involving dancing and music. The period is more culturally-dependant than the ban itself. In some cultures, the period is from Pesach to Lag B'Omer. Others go from Rosh Chodesh Iyyar to Shavuot. Yom Haatzmaut and Yom Yerushalaim are days on which people who celebrate them take haircuts or take haircuts the day before. Yom Ha'Shoah (Nisan 27) Holocaust remembrance day, which is dedicated to the memory of those who perished in the Holocaust. It was on that day in 1943 that the Nazis finally suppressed the Warsaw ghetto revolt. On this day the people unite in remembering the six million victims, the ghetto fighters, and the partisans. All places of entertainment and restaurants are closed for the 24 hours commencing on the eve of Memorial Day. Candles are lit on public buildings and in synagogues, flags are lowered to half-mast and Yad Vashem conducts a state memorial service. The president of the State of Israel, former members of the underground and partisans, survivors and members of the public participate. See also: Yom Yerushalayim. Yom Hazikaron (Iyar 4) Day of remembrance. A memorial day to those who fell in active service in Israel's wars. Observed on the 4th of Iyyar, the eve of Independance Day. This date was determined by the Israel government in 1949. On this day all places of entertainment throughout the country are closed by law, flags are flown at half mast and memorial candles burn on public buildings and in synagogues. People visit military cemeteries and official memorial services are held. Since 1968 an official service is held at the Western Wall to mark the beginning of Yom ha-Zikkaron . At both Arvit (evening) and Shaharit (morning) services in many synagogues a special memorial prayer is recited. A siren is sounded during the morning and all activity is halted as citizens observe a two-minute silence. After the closing ceremony of Remembrance Day, the festivities of Independence Day begin. See also: Yom Yerushalayim. Yom Ha'atzma'ut (Iyar 5) Israel Independence Day, which commemorates the establishment of the State of Israel on the 5th of Iyyar (14 May 1948). National celebrations begin with a ceremony on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem, near Herzl's grave, presided over by the chairman of the Knesset. National flags are hoisted in the streets and on the buildings, and people celebrate the holiday with dancing in the street, parties, day trips and outings. For many years the central event of the day was the Israel Defence Forces military parade. In recent years the central event is the Bible Quiz for Jewish youth. Each year on the day of the Israel Prize is awarded to outstanding figures in their particular field. In many synagogues a special service, which includes Hallel, is recited. Many people celebrate with a festive meal on the eve of the holiday. See also: Yom Yerushalayim. Lag Ba'Omer (Iyar 18--The 33rd day of the Omer) Thirty-third day of Omer counting, as indicated by the numerical equivalent of the Hebrew letters lamed (30) and gimmel (3), hence the word lag. . Lag Ba'Omer takes place during the Sefirah. During this day there was a break in the Hadrianic persecution. Weddings and joyful occasions are permitted. Lag Ba'Omer is considered a joyous day on which the semi-mourning observed during the seven-week Omer period is suspended. It is commemorated as the day of the cessation of the plague in which 24,000 disciples of Rabbi Akiba were said to have died during the Bar Kokhba revolt (TB. Yev. 62b). It also marks the yahrzeit of Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai. Lag ba-Omer has been traditionally celebrated with the lighting of bonfires on the eve and during the day, and with hiking excursions in the countryside. Sporting events and games with bows and arrows are held, as a symbolic remembrance of the Bar Kokhba revolt and the physical prowess and courage required of his soldiers. In Israel, it is customary to light bonfires at the tombs of Simeon bar Yohai and his son Eliezer at Meron, near Safed, and at the tomb of Simeon the Just in Jerusalem. Throngs congregate to sing and dance, and to honor the memories of Simeon bar Yohai and Rabbi Akiba, who were among the main rabbinic supporters of anti-Roman resistance In hasidic circles, three-year-old boys are traditionally given their first haircut at these festivals. Older Torah students and adults celebrate the day as the "Scholars' Holiday". Lag ba-Omer is also a traditional day for wedding ceremonies to be held because of the general halakhic injunction against weddings during the period of the Omer counting. Yom Yerushalayim (Iyar 28) Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day) marks the reunification of Jerusalem and The Temple Mount under Jewish rule almost 1900 years after the destruction of the Second Temple. This reunification occured during the Six Day War (June 1967). On this day East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, was captured by the Israeli Defence Forces. Many events take place in Jerusalem to mark Jerusalem Day. A memorial service is held on Ammunition Hill, where many paratroopers fell during the battles. Large numbers of Israelis pay a visit to Jerusalem to pray at the Western Wall and tour the city. The Chief Rabbinate has composed a service of special prayers, including the recital of Hallel, for the occasion. The Hallel [a series of prayers of praise] is recited by most Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform congregations. Israel's Chief Rabbis advocate reciting Hallel with a blessing. The new holidays of Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Hazikaron, Yom Ha'atzma'ut and Yom HaShoah are still too new for any consensus to have developed in the Jewish community as to the appropriate liturgy. Many liberal Jews observe them (and create new liturgies for them). Traditional Jews vary in the observance of these days. Some observe them. Some prefer to commemorate Churban Europa on Tisha B'Av along with the other catastrophes which have befallen the Jewish people. Some celebrate the Israel-related days, but don't assign them religious significance, and others ignore all three. Shavuot (Sivan 6, 7) The second Pilgrimage Festival, it is also known as The Feast of Weeks, Hag Haqatsir (The harvest festival), Hag HaShavuot, or just 'Atseret (The conclusion of Pesach). [Literally, the Hebrew word 'atseret' means conclusion.] Shavuot marks the end of the counting of the Omer; it occurs on the day after the conclusion of the counting of the 49 days of the Omer, in accordance with the biblical command to count seven complete weeks from the morrow of Passover (Lev. 23:15-16). According to Rabbinic tradition, the Ten Commandments were given on this day. It is customary to read the Book of Ruth on this day. Shavuot is also called "zman matan toratanu" (the time of the giving of the Torah). The interpretation of the counting of the Omer was the subject of a bitter dispute between two parties within the Jewish people during the Second Temple period. The Pharisses, the party that accepted the Oral Law and claimed that it was the only authoritative interpretation of the Bible, took the words "day of rest" to refer to the opening holiday of Passover, on which no work could be performed. The Sadducees, who repudiated the Oral Law, took the phrase literally (in Hebrew the text reads "Sabbath") as the first Sabbath of Passover. Accordingly, the date of the holiday came out differently for each of these groups, with the Sadducees sometimes celebrating Shavuot as many as six days later than the Pharisses. Shavuot has an agricultural character and is known in the sources as the "Feast of the Harvest" (Hag ha-Katzir, Ex. 23:16) and "the day of the first fruits" (Yom ha-Bikkurim, Num. 28:26). The main theme of the holiday, however is the commemoration of the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai, which by tradition (as inferred from verses in Exodus 19) occured on the 6th of Sivan. When the Temple stood. the most salient aspect of the holiday, aside from its various sacrifices, was the bringing of the special "twin loaves" (lehem ha-bikkurim) made from the newly cut wheat. From Shavuot throughout the summer the first fruits of the seven species (wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates). Among certain Jewish communities, the mourning rites of the Omer period end with the advent of the month of Sivan, and it becomes permissible, among other things, to hold weddings. The 3rd, 4th, and 5th of Sivan are known as Sheloshet Yemei Hagbalah the Three Days of Restriction. These are the days when the children of Israel were restricted from approaching Mount Sinai prior to revelation, and certain holiday customs are observed at this time. Thus the propitiatory prayers called Tahanun are not recited and eulogies may not be delivered. The 2nd of Sivan is known as the yom ha-meyuhas, the day of importance, coming as it does between the first of the month (Rosh Hodesh), a semi-holiday, and the Three Days of Restriction. In some communities, the Sabbath prior to Shavuot is known as the Sabbath of the Bride (Shabbat Kallah), since the Torah, given on Shavuot, is metaphorically described as Israel's bride. These communities maintain the custom of reading a ketubbah (marriage contract) between the Torah and the Jewish people, at the time when the Torah is removed for reading from the holy ark. On the evening of Shavuot Arvit is recited with the festival Amidah. It is customary to take care to recite the Arvit after dark in order to make certain that the holiday is begun after the completion of the seven full weeks of the Omer period. The Torah reading consists of the account of the giving of the Torah in Exodus (19-20) and is preceded by the recitation of Akdamut, a special hymn written in Aramaic. Akdamut has 90 lines and details a debate between the Jewish people and the nations and tells of the reward that awaits the righteous in the next world. The Torah reading is followed by the festival Musaf. In some congregations, liturgical poems known as Azharot are recited as part of the Musaf. These are concerned with the 613 commandments. Certain Sephardi congregations recite the azharot as well as the Book of Ruth during the Minah service instead. In the sixteenth century, the kabbalists instituted the custom of remaining awake the entire night of Shavuot and complied a lectionary known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot (Tikkun for Shavuot Eve), which comprises the first chapters of the sacred books and which is studied at the time. In time the custom of studying any subject of Jewish religious interest developed, but the observance is still known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot. Those who remain awake for the entire night recite the morning prayer service, Shaharit, at dawn. In Jerusalem, it has become customary to walk to the Western Wall for the entire morning service or at least for the Musaf, and since 1967, when Jerusalem was reunited, many thousands can be seen streaming into the Western Wall compound from all over the city. A very ancient custom is to eat dishes of milk and honey on Shavuot in keeping with the verse in Song of songs (4:11) that describes the Torah as "Honey and milk under your tongue." The Fast of the Seventeenth of Tamuz (Tamuz 17) Mentioned by the prophet Zechariah (Zech. 8:19) as "the fast of the fourth month", the 17th of Tamuz marks the beginning of the destruction of Jerusalem. On this day in 70 C.E. the Romans breached the walls encircling Jerusalem, which led to the destruction of the second Temple. (During the siege preceding the first destruction of the Temple in 587 B.C.E., the Babylonians breached the walls on the ninth of Tamuz (Jeremiah 39:2), but both events are commemorated on the same date. The actual destruction of the Temple itself took place on the 9th of Av--both in 587 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. See Tisha B'Av.) "Five catastrophies befell our fathers on the 17th of Tammuz: the tablets (of the Covenant) were broken, the daily Temple sacrifices were suspended, the walls to the city were breached, Apostamus burned a Torah scroll, and an idol was erected in the Temple" (Ta'an. 26a). The tablets were broken because Moses ascended Mount Sinai on the 7th of Sivan, remained there for 40 days, and descended to find the people worshipping the Golden Calf on the 17th of Tammuz. The daily sacrifices were suspended during the civil of the Hasmoneans John Hyrcanus and Aristobulus because the Greeks at that time laid seige to Jerusalem and there was no access to sacrificial animals. The inhabitants of Jerusalem would lower money over the city wall in a basket, and the enemy would send up lambs in return. "On one occasion, a pig was sent up instead, and it dug its hooves into the wall, and the earth shook over an area of 500 parasangs ... Apostamus burned the Torah scroll." It is not known precisely to what this refers. However, some identify it with the incident in which the Roman procurator discovered a Torah scroll, desecrated, and burned it. For the traditional, this day is observed by fasting. The fast begins at sunrise and concludes at sunset of the same day. this applies to all fasts, with the exception of Yom Kippur and Tisha B'Av, both of which begin on the preceding night. Fasting is the only restriction imposed; Working and bathing as usual are permitted. The fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz extends only from dawn until dark. During the Shaharit service, special penitential prayers (selihots) are recited. The Torah is read at both Shaharit and Minhah services, and a haftarah (prophetic reading) is chanted as on other fast days. The Seventeenth of Tammuz initiates a period of mourning, known as bein ha-metzarim, "between the straits", which concludes three weeks later with the fast of Tishah be-Av. The Three Weeks (Tamuz 17-Av 9) and The Nine Days (Av 1-Av 9) For the traditional, the days between the 17th of Tamuz and the 9th of Av are considered days of mourning, for they witnessed the collapse of Jerusalem. In the Ashkenazi Jewish minhag (custom), weddings and other joyful occasions are traditionally not held in this period. A further element is added within the three weeks, during the nine days between the 1st and 9th day of Av. During this period, the pious refrain from eating meat and drinking wine, except on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (such as a Pidyon Haben or completing the study of a religious text.) Many minhags observe a ban on cutting one's hair during this period. However, the length of time varies: some refrain only during the week in which Tisha B'Av falls. Tisha B'Av (Av 9) The saddest day of the Jewish calendar. On this day both the First and Second Temples were destroyed. (587 b.c.e. and 70 c.e.) On this day in 1290, King Edward I signed the edict compelling the Jews to leave England. The Jewish expulsion from Spain in 1492 also occurred on this day. Tisha B'av also marked the outbreak of World War I. The date is also associated with the final collapse of the abortive Bar Kokhba revolt (135 CE). The Tishah be-Av fast begins at sundown and lasts 24 hours (like Yom Kippur), differentiating it from the other minor fasts that begin at sunrise. The rules for observing the fast day are similar to those of Yom Kippur. If Tishah be-Av falls on a Sabbath, it is deferred to the following day, Sunday. Like Yom Kippur, the Minhah service is held early in the day and a last meal is eaten prior to sunset. On Tishah be-Av, Torah study, with the exception of those portions concerning mourning or the destruction of the Temple, is forbidden. Before the Arvit service all leather shoes are removed, the curtain is removed from the holy ark, and prayers are recited in a subdued tone. after the service worshippers sit on a low stool or on the floor as the Book of Lamentations is read and a few kinot (elegies) are recited. Neither the tallit nor the tefillin are worn during the Shaharit service (Yemenite Jews do wear the tallit. The service includes the reading of the Torah, "When you have begotten children and children's children" (Deut. 4:25) and a prophetic reading (haftarah), "I will make an end to them - declares the Lord" (Jer. 8:13). After the Torah is returned to the holy ark, a larger number of kinot are recited. In some communities, lamentations is recited again. It is the custom not to exchange normal greetings and to refrain from work, until midday. At the Minhah service, the tallit and tefillin are worn and their respective blessings recited. The Torah reading and prophetic reading at this service are the same as on minor fast days. A special prayer is added to the blessing of Boneh Yerushalayim (Builder of Jerusalem) during the Amidah. New Year for Animal Tithes (Taxes) (Elul 1) This day is set up by the Mishna as the New Year for animal tithes, which roughly corresponds to a new year for taxes. This is similar to the tax deadline in the United States of America, on April 15. The date is disputed; Some authorities claim that it was observed on Tishrei 1 (Rosh HaShanah). The actual date is now merely academic; This holiday has not been observed since the Babylonian diaspora.
Subject: Question 5.2: What are the dates of the upcoming Jewish holidays? Answer: [The following is courtesy of the Hebcal program, mentioned in [5]Section 5.3. Hebcal also provides an interactive Jewish calendar at [6]http://www.hebcal.com/] 2003: * January: 4 Rosh Chodesh Shvat; 18 Tu B'Shvat * February: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Adar I; 17 Purim Katan * March: 4/2003 Rosh Chodesh Adar II; 16 Ta'anit Esther; 17 Purim; 18 Shushan Purim * April: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Nisan; 16 Erev Pesach - Taanit B'chorot; 17-24 Pesach I-VIII; 29 Yom HaShoah * May: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Iyyar; 6 Yom HaZikaron; 7 Yom Ha'atzmaut; 20 Lag B'Omer; 29 Yom Yerushalayim * June: 1 Rosh Chodesh Sivan; 6-7 Shavuot I-II; 30 Rosh Chodesh Tamuz * July: 1 Rosh Chodesh Tamuz; 17 Shiva Assar B'Tamuz; 30 Rosh Chodesh Av * August: 7 Tish'a B'Av; 28-29 Rosh Chodesh Elul * September: 26 Erev Rosh Hashana; 27-28 Rosh Hashana I-II; 29 Tzom Gedalia * October: 5 Erev Yom Kippur; 6 Yom Kippur; 11-17 Sukkot I-VII; 18 Shmini Atzeret; 19 Simchat Torah; 26-27 Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan * November: 25-26 Rosh Chodesh Kislev * December: 20-27 Chanukah I-VII 2004: * January: 4 Asara B'Tevet; 24 Rosh Chodesh Shevat * February: 7 Tu B'Shvat; 21 Shabbat Shekalim; 22-23 Rosh Chodesh Adar * March: 4 Ta'anit Esther; 6 Shabbat Zachor; 7 Purim; 8 Shushan Purim; 13 Shabbat Parah; 20 Shabbat HaChodesh; 23 Rosh Chodesh Nisan * April: 3 Shabbat HaGadol ; 6 Ta'anit Bechorot/Erev Pesach; 6-13 Pesach; 18 Yom HaShoah; 21-22 Rosh Chodesh Iyyar; 25 Yom HaZikaron; 26 Yom HaAtzma'ut * May: 9 Lag B'Omer; 19 Yom Yerushalayim; 21 Rosh Chodesh Sivan; 26-27 Shavuot * June: 19-20 Rosh Chodesh Tamuz * July: 6 Tzom Tammuz; 19 Rosh Chodesh Av; 24 Shabbat Hazon; 27 Tish'a B'Av; 31 Shabbat Nachamu * August: 17-18 Rosh Chodesh Elul * September: 16-17 Rosh Hashana 5765; 18 Shabbat Shuva; 19 Tzom Gedaliah; 25 Yom Kippur; 30 Sukkot * October: 1-6 Sukkot II-VII; 7 Shmini Atzeret; 8 Simchat Torah; 15-16 Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan * November: 14 Rosh Chodesh Kislev * December: 7-15 Chanukah; 13 Rosh Chodesh Tevet; 22 Asara B'Tevet Since the Jewish day starts at sunset, all of these holidays (except those marked "Erev", which means "Evening") start at sunset on the civil date before. (See [7]Subject 7.2 for details.)
Subject: Question 5.3: How can I get a Jewish calendar? Answer: Chabad-Lubavitch and other organizations publish calendars which include sunset times for various cities. Jewish funeral homes often distribute Jewish calendars to local synagogues around Rosh Hashana. Jewish bookstores and gift shops sell them as well. In terms of software to generate Hebrew calendars, there are a number of resources available: * Unix: + Gnu Emacs. User's of gnu emacs will discover that there is a Jewish calendar built into Gnu Emacs. You invoke the calendar via M-x calendar. Once in the calendar, a number of different commands are available. In this context, it is worth noting that the list of holidays obtained from M-x holidays includes Jewish holidays, the key S can be used to obtain sunrise/sunset times for the selected date (you need to set latitude and longitude first; the relevant variables are calendar-latitute, calendar-longitude, and calendar-location-name. To display the hebrew date for a given day, use the sequence p h (calendar-print-hebrew-date), and to move to a date on the hebrew calendar, use g h (calendar-goto-hebrew-date). + [5]Remind. This a sophisticated multi-lingual calendar and alarm system for UNIX. It produces web-based and PostScript calendars, and includes a powerful scripting language and friendly graphical front-end. It was developed by [6]David Skoll. It is available at [7]http://www.roaringpenguin.com/remind.html. + [8]Hebcal. This is a Perpetual jewish calendar program by [9]Danny Sadinoff. * Windows: + HEBREW CALENDAR FOR WINDOWS. Provides full-month calendars for Jewish/Hebrew date conversion. Holidays displayed with information available. Sunset/Sunrise, Shabbat times and zmanim. Anniversaries may be stored in personal database. Customized calendar printouts. Torah and Haftarah readings. Halakhic times of day (zmanim). Covers 1600-2200 (5360-5960). Clipboard, Notepad, and Cardfile support. Extensive city database. Lots more features. Available from the [10]Home Page of the Calendar Maven (<http://www.calendar-maven.com>) + Kaluach. This program displays a full month (either Hebrew or civil) on the screen with all Jewish holidays, fast days (ta'aniot), Shabbat parshiot, counting of the omer (sfirat haomer), birchat hachama, and more. It provides daily halachic times (zmanim): alot hashachar, earliest time for tallit and tefillin, netz hachama (sunrise), latest times for shema and tefillah, chatzot hayom, mincha gedolah and ketanah, shkiat hachama (sunset), tzeit hakochavim. It also provides Shabbat times: hadlakat nerot (candle lighting) and tzeit shabbat (the end of Shabbat); Halachic times calculated according to selected shitot and location; and a choice of Hebrew or English language display (Hebrew support even under standard English Windows-- the Hebrew date is displayed in the Windows 95 status line when the window is minimized. Users can add personal data such as birthdays, anniversaries, and yahrzeits. Additional information available at [11]http://members.tripod.com/~kaluach. * The Web: + Steven Weintraub's [12]JEWISH CALENDAR CALCULATION. This page gives a lot of information on the hebrew calendar, including code in various forms, a CGI interface, and a JAVA calendar + [13]HaVeinu L'Shalom. This organization provides an online perpetual calendar in day or month at a time, as well as Kaballah/Jewish Astrology Calendar. + There is a JavaScript Jewish calendar at [14]http://sites.netscape.net/cgiwpg/calendar.htm
Subject: Question 5.4: Why do some people take off one day, and others two? Answer: The Jewish calendar is based on a lunar system in which each month begins at the new moon. A month can consist of 29 or 30 days. Originally the determination of the new moon was by the Sanhedrin (highest rabbinic court, 70 members) when witnesses declared that they had seen the new moon. Once the Sanhedrin declared the new month, messages were sent to the various communities stating which day (of the two possible) began the new month. Note that this does not say that the Sanhedrin did not know the methods of calculating the new moon, but merely that proper procedure required the witnesses. The astronomical calculations could be used to verify the validity of the witnesses, if necessary. In those months in which holidays occurred, (such as Nisan for Pesach), the exact date was critical for determining when the holiday began. Since the messengers could not reach every community in the time allotted, those communities they could not reach would celebrate both possible days. In 325 CE, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) administration in what was then Palestine limited the rights of the Sanhedrin to disseminate calendrical information. Hillel II, the Sanhedrin President at the time, published a set of rules for the maintenance of the calendar, which is still used today. The Sanhedrin also determined that those communities outside of Eretz Yisrael would continue to keep the second day of the holiday because of a principal "Minhag Avoseinu Beyadeinu", the customs of our fathers [remain] in our hands, and to remember the law for when the Sanhedrin is reestablished and the month is determined by witnesses again. Reform Jews believe that since the calendar is defined exactly, there is no longer a need to keep the second day of Yom Tov outside of Eretz Yisrael. However some Reform Jews do choose to observe two days. Many Orthodox Jews feel that once the Sanhedrin is reestablished, that the declaration will be disseminated by CNN [Cable News Network] or maybe even soc.culture.jewish, and even the Jews outside of Eretz Yisrael will only be required to keep one day. However, until that time comes, the requirement is to maintain the calendar as established by the original Sanhedrin, which includes two days.
Subject: Question 5.5: Why does the Jewish day start at sundown? Answer: Because this is how the Torah describes days, starting in the book of Genesis: "And there was evening, and there was morning, one day." (Gen. 1:5). As another example, the Torah refers to Yom Kippur explicitly as "from evening to the next evening".
Subject: Question 5.6: What are the origins of the Chanukah Dreidel? Answer: Both dreidel and grogger are traditional European toys, although the names they go by in non-Jewish cultures are quite different from the ones we use. The English (and Latin) name for the dreidel is teetotum -- and you can look up its history in the Oxford English Dictionary. It turns out to be an ancient gambling toy, known in ancient Greece, and with national variations on the letters on the faces of the toy. In all national variants, the letters are a mnemonic for the rules of the game. For example, the traditional English letters are: T - Take all H - Take half N - Nothing P - Put Although the fact that the Dreidel goes back to Greek times makes it possible that it was known in the Hashemonean kingdom, the fact that the Hebrew letters on the sides make a mnemonic that fits the pattern described above when used as initial letters of Yiddish words suggests that the dreidel entered Jewish culture through the Yiddish speaking Ashkenazi and is not of ancient origin. The OED entry for teetotum says that that the toy fell out of use because cards were far better gambling games, and that by the 1890's, it had been reduced to a children's toy in the English speaking world. In the Jewish world, according to Schauss's guide to Jewish Holy Days, the playing card fad of the middle ages led the rabbis issuing a series of edicts condemning excessive gambling. They didn't ban the dreidel, though, perhaps because the "A great miracle happened there" interpretation of the letters allowed the dreidel to escape their wrath. As to the grogger, the rest of the English speaking world calls them ratchets. You can buy orchestral ratchets from the precussion section of good music supply catalogs, and in much of the world, the ratchet is an important part of the equipment you take to things like soccer matches and new-years parties.
Subject: Question 5.7: Is it appropriate for Christians to "celebrate" Pesach using the form of a seder meal? Answer: Although there have been demonstration Seders at a goodly number of Christian churches, the key word is "demonstration". These are educational experiences, rather than observances. Note that there is no historical basis for the assumption the the Last Supper was a Seder. Note that the Seder states "We do this because of the Eternal One did for US, when he led us out of the land of Egypt." The Seder can not be separated from Jewish peoplehood.
Subject: Question 5.8: What are the months of the Jewish Year? Answer: Note: This is based on material at [5]http://www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/rz3a035/jew_fest.html. The Jewish calendar has its months determined on a lunar basis, and its years on a solar basis. As the lunar year consists of about 354 days and the solar year has 365.25 days, the lunar cycle must be adjusted to the solar calendar in order that Passover should always fall in the "month of Abib" (Deut. 16:1). This adjustment is made by having a leap year seven times in each nineteen-year cycle; specifically, in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th years of the cycle. In a leap year, an extra month of Adar (Adar Sheni) is added into the calendar. The months in the Jewish calendar are as follows: * Nisan. The first month of the Jewish calendar (Ex. 12:2); the seventh from the beginning of the civil year. The name appears in the Bible only in Esther 3:7 and Nehemiah 2:1. In Ex. 13:4, 23:15, 34:18; Deut. 16:1, it is called "the month of Abib (Spring). According to one tradition, the Creation occured in the month of Nisan. It is also the month in which the biblical patriarchs were born, Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, and the final redemption is to take place (TB. RH 11a). In biblical times, kings reckoned the years of their reign from the first of Nisan. It is customary during the entire month of Nisan to refrain from reciting tahanun (supplication) prayers, eulogies and memorial prayers. Notable holidays are Pasover (15-21/22), Holocaust Memorial Day (27). Historically, the Tabernacle was completed in the wilderness on the 1st; the Paschal sacrafice was offered in biblical times and the Warsaw Ghetto Revolt in 1943 began on the 14th. * Iyyar. The Bible calls this month Ziv (radience) (I Kg. 6:1, 6:37), and it is referred to as Iyyar in the Talmud (RH 1:3). Notable Holidays are Israeli Independence Day (5), Lag b'Omer (18), and Yom Yerushalayim (28). * Sivan. The name appears in the Bible only in Esther 8:9. Notable holidays are Shavuot (6/7). * Tammuz. Tammuz is mentioned once in the Bible in reference to the Babylonian god (Ezek. 8:14); in the Talmud it appears frequently as the name of the month. Notable holidays are the Fast of Tammuz (17). * Av. Av first appears in Jewish sources in Megillat Ta'anit of the talmudic period, but appears earlier in Assyrian inscriptions, apparently referring to spring and meaning "fresh growth". As many national calamities occured in Av, it is also called Menahem (consoler), expressing the hope it will be a month of consolation. "When Av arrives, gladness is diminished," say the talmudic sages (Ta'an. 4:6). Hence, celebration is severely curtailed until after the ninth of Av. During these nine days, amusements, bathing for pleasure, business dealings, new construction, planting and nonvital repairs are avoided; meat is not eaten and wine not drunk except on Sabbath and at a se'udat mitzah repast. Notable holidays are Tish b'Av (9). Notable historic events: Aaron died on the 1st; on the 9th: the First Temple was destroyed (586 BCE); the Second Temple was destroyed (70 CE); Jerusalem was razed by Hadrian (132 CE); Bethar fell as the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed (135 CE); England expelled the Jews (1290 CE); Spain expelled the Jews (1492 CE); and the Jews of Rome were enclosed in a ghetto (1555 CE); on the 10th, France expelled the Jews (1306 CE). * Elul. As Elul immediately precedes the Days of Awe, it is a month of repentence in which special prayers are said and the shofar is sounded at the weekday morning service. In the Sephardi rites, selihot are recited daily throughout the month, whereas Ashkenazim recite them only during the week before Rosh ha-Shanah. * Tishri. In the Torah, Tishri is referred to as "the month of Ethanim", the month of natural forces (I Kg. 8:2). The expression is possibly a reference to the winds that are expected to bring the season's first rains, or to the torrents that are supposed to fill the wadis in Eretz Israel at this time of year. The name "Tishri", from the Akkadian root meaning "to begin", first appears in Jewish sourses in the Talmud. Notable holidays are Rosh Ha-Shana (1/2), Fast of Gedaliah (3); Yom Kippur (10); Sukkot (15-22); Hoshana Rabbah (21); Shemini Atzertet (22); Simchat Torah (23). Notable historic events: on the 10th, the Jews were expelled from Paris (1394 CE) and the Yom Kippur War began (1973 CE). * Heshivan. The Torah calls it "the month of the Bul" (I Kg. 6:38) in reference to the bountiful harvests associated with the season. The name Heshivan first appears in Jewish sourses in talmudic literature and Josephus (Ant. 1,3,3). It is often referred to as Marheshivan, i.e. with the prefix "mar". The term "mar" is thought to mean "a drop" and relates to the month as the beginning of the rainy season. There are no festivals or fast days in Heshivan. In that respect it is unique. Notable historical days: On the 16th, Kristallnach, the the destruction of synagogues in Nazi Germany and Austria, occured.(9/10 November 1938). * Kislev. Kislev is mentioned in the Torah (Zech. 7:1; Neh. 1:1). According to the Talmud, "If rains have not fallen by the 1st of Kislev, three public fasts are decreed" (TB. Ta'an. 10a). Notable holidays: Chanukkah (starts on the 25th). Notable historical events: on the 17th, the U.N. General Assembly decided on partition of Palestine (29 November 1947); on the 22nd, the State of Israel declared Jerusalem its capital (1949); and on the 24th, the building of the Second Temple occurred (Haggai 2:18) and the British captured of Jerusalem (8 December 1917). * Tevet. Although it is mentioned in the Torah its meaning is obscure (Esth. 2:16). The last two or three days of Hanukkah fall at the beginning of Tevet. Notable Holidays: Asarah be-Tevet (10), a day of fasting and mourning, marking the start of the siege of Jerusalem by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar (588 BCE); this day is also the Memorial day for the victims of the Holocaust whose day of death is unknown, set by the Israeli Chief Rabbinate (1949). Notable historical events: on the 19th, Keren Kayemet le-Israel (Jewish National Fund) was established, (1901 CE); on the 20th, Maimonides died (1204 CE); and on the 23rd Portugal expelled its Jewish population (1496). * Shevat. The name appeared once in the Torah (Zech. 1:7). Notable holidays: Tu b'Shevat (15), the New Year for Trees. Notable historical events: on the 15th, the First Knesset convened (1949); and on the 18th, the Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as first president of the State of Israel. * Adar/Adar II. The name appears in the Torah in Ezra 6:15 and seven times in Esther. In a leap year, the intercalcated month is called Adar Sheni (Second Adar or Adar II) and the regular month Adar Rishom (First Adar or Adar I). Events normally occuring in Adar are celebrated in Adar II; however, the yahrzeit of someone who died in an ordinary Adar is marked in Adar I (although, because there is a difference of opinion, some will say Kaddish also in Adar II). "When Adar arrives people should increase gladness" (TB. Ta'an. 29a) because of the Purim deliverance that occured in that month. In Adar the half shekel was collected from the public for Temple and related purposes; the forbidden kilayim grafted crops were uprooted; repairs were begun on roads and on water sources damaged by rain, to make them fit for the Passover pilgrims to Jerusalem. Notable holidays are the Fast of Esther (13); Purim (14); and Shushan Purim (15). Notable historic events include on the1st, the Shekel campaign begun in Temple period; and on the 7th, the supposed date of the birth and death of Moses, which is marked as a yahzeit of all persons whose burial place is unknown, and, in Israel, of the "Unknown Soldiers."
Subject: Question 5.9: How does Judaism measure the day? Answer: In the Talmud (Eiruvin 56a), Shmuel (3rd cent CE) asserts the Julian year to be a sufficient approximation for the true solar year for legal purposes: 365 days, 6 hours. In Sefer haIbbur, Rav Ada (a younger contemporary) asserts a closer approximation of 365 days, 997 chalaqim, 46 rega'im. In general, tradition follows R' Ada, except in the Blessing on the Sun, which is done once every 28 years. Every 28 years, the sun returns to where it was at the moment of its creation on Wednesday. This is only true if you presume Shmuel's approximation, which would have each year be 52 weeks, 1.25 days. The calculations of R' Ada's approximation would lead to the blessing being said too rarely. In any case, the whole thing is symbolic, as there is reason to believe Shmuel himself didn't take the "week of creation" literally. The Jewish calendar, which uses the Metonic 19 year cycle of 12 and 13 month years, is adjusted to get a total of 19 of R' Ada's approximation of solar years. For the month, the approximation used is to the nearest heleq, not rega: 29 days, 12 hours 793 halaqim. However, it is exact to that precision. [Which is quite an accomplishment, as the month length varies (the path of the moon around the earth is chaotic, what Newton called a "three body problem). It would take roughly 2,400 years of averaging to get a standard deviation that small. Jewish tradition attributes great age to this number, dating it all the way back to G-d telling Moses in Sinai.]
Subject: Question 5.10: Are the Four Questions asked on Pesach in the Torah? Answer: All four are found within the 5 books of Moses. 1. The wise son's question is from Deut 6. 2. The wicked son's quesiton is in Exodus 12. 3. The simple son's question comes from Exodus 13. 4. The answer we offer the unasked question of the one who doesn't know to ask is provided in Exod 13 as well. Much ink has been spent on why the answers given the wise and wicked sons in the Torah are not the ones used in the Passover Haggadah. The Torah answers the wise son, "We were slaves to Pharoah in Egypt', a text used earlier in the Passover Haggadah. The Haggadah, here continues that answer from the theoretical to the pragmatic, and therefore has you telling the son all the laws of the evening. The Torah's wicked son differs from the Haggadah. The wicked son asks, "What is this work for you?" The Torah states that this son is of a generation who grew "old in the land", whose parents go through the routine, but really see it as work. The harsh answer of the Haggadah is therefore not given the Torah's version of the question--its child is not fully accountable for its attitude. Note that in Pesachim 116a we find four questions more suited for when the Temple is standing: one about matzah, maror, roasted lamb (the qorban pesach) and abut dipping twice. Today, without the qorban, that question became moot. However, reclining is out of place; it's both no longer in style, and not the norm for a people still struggling to return. Therefore asking about it was a logical replacement. And, the Vilna Gaon writes, this preserves the parallel in number to the four cups of wine and four foremothers. The Rambam (Hilchos Chameitz uMatzah 8:2-3), on the other hand, writes that there were originally five questions. The one about roasting was dropped, not replaced. In the Yerushalmi's version of the mishnah and the one found printed with the Rif's and Rosh's commentaries in the back of the Vilna edition of the Talmud, there are only three questions: dipping, matzah and roasted meat. R' Menachem Kasher (Haggadah Sheleimah) cites 9 manuscripts of the mishnah, of which 8 only had these three questions. In all probability, this was because the maror was one of the items dipped. It was not felt to warrant a second question once the one about dipping was raised. While on the subject of Pesachim 116a, it's interesting to note that the rest of the "Maggid" portion of the haggadah appears to be a fulfilment of the mitzvah according to each of three different opinions. Rav has us focussing on the spiritual redemption ("Originally we were idolaters...") Shemu'el, on the physical one ("We were slaves to Pharoah...") Rabban Gamli'el, on the mitzvos of the night ("Anyone who did not discuss these three things...")
Subject: Question 5.11: What are the different days of the Jewish week? Answer: Judaism doesn't make much distinction between the days of the week, except for Shabbat. In fact, the days of the week are called Yom Rishon, Yom Sheini... (i.e., 1st day, 2nd day, ....), and then Shabbat. The only philosophical oddity is that not only is day 7 called "Shabbat", but each day is "of the Shabbat". In other words, "the first day" (Sunday) is liturgically called "yom rishon beshabbat" when introducing the day's psalm.
Subject: Question 5.12: How are Yahrzeits observed in Leap Years? Answer: The real question is how one observes Yahrzeits that occur in the Jewish month of Adar: are they observed in Adar I or Adar II? Many issues in halachah are subject to debate, and this is one of them. The Sepharadic ruling (followed also by some Chassidic groups) is to observe in Adar II. Once Purim is on Adar II (to make a "redemption season" of Purim and Passover), the "real Adar" is the 2nd Adar. The Ashkenazic ruling is based on the notion that one ought not pass up an opportunity to do a mitzvah. Therefore, the earliest possible definition of yahrzeit, Adar I, is used. There is a custom to say kaddish on both days. However, in terms of being the chazan, the other yahrzeit date gives no priority over someone whose parent actually died in a leap year and has an exact yahrzeit.
Subject: Question 5.13: What happened to the observance on 14 Nisan as Passover? Answer: Actually, the Torah only refers to the afternoon of the 14th as Passover. This is the time during which the Passover offering was brought. It doesn't even imply that the day was named "Passover", just that it refers to that period as "during the Passover [offering]". The offering was actually eaten that night, on the fifteenth, the begining of the holiday the Torah calls Chag haMatzos (the holiday of matzahs). Why the name change? We call the holiday "Passover" to commemorate what G-d did for us. He passed over the Israelites' homes and saved them from Egypt. However, in writing the Torah, G-d stresses what man did and does. So in the text of the bible, the name is taken from the commandment of the day.
Subject: Question 5.14: For Mother's Day, how should one bless their mothers? Answer: First, note that both Mother's Day and Father's Day are American holidays, not Jewish holidays. Although some congregations may recognize them, they are not Jewish holidays, as demonstrated by their being observed on a Sunday, a traditional Christian day for church worship. So, how to bless your mother. Listen to what she says; do what she asks. Find a nice Jewish person to marry. Seriously, although one may be able to develop a blessing for anything, in traditional Judaism, blessing one's parents is not the normal construction. In traditional Judaism, blessings are generally bestowed by the have to the have not: kohein to masses, Abraham's children to the rest of the world, parent to child, rebbe to student/chasid. To bestow a blessing implies having G-d's "ear". Everyone has G-d's attention, and "The blessing of commoners should not be a light thing in your eyes." This adds much meaning to wishing another "Mazal Tov!" or "Refu'ah sheleimah" (complete healing). However, codified blessings tend to run in one direction. A creative rabbi, of course, could craft something, but it wouldn't be a codified construction (i.e., standard in Judaism). By the way, what is a good day in Judaism for recognizing parents? We've noted above that Mother's Day and Father's Day are not (actually, they were created by the greeting card companies). Here's a suggestion: Shavuot is a great time for children to honor their parents, as the Torah portion for the week is a reading of the 10 commandments that includes the directive. It is also a great time for remembering all the other 9 commandments, and that we should be following them (as we do every week when we study Torah).
Subject: Question 6.1: What is Kosher? Doesn't a rabbi just bless the food? Answer: Kosher ("fit") food must meet the complex requirements of Jewish law, and the supervising rabbi verifies that such is the case for a given food item, or item which will come in contact with food. There are restrictions on which foods are permitted during different times of the year, and a procedure for slaughtering permissible animals with minimal pain to the animal. The rabbi's role is to decide questions of Jewish law. In the area of kashrus, there are hundreds of details that must be met, and thousands of "oops, now what?" questions that must be answered. Animals, for example, are killed in a very precise manner, by a "shochet", and they must be checked internally for disease, have their blood removed by salting, feathers removed in cold water, and so on. Kosher wine may not come into gentile contact before pasteurization. Vegetables must be examined for insects. Because meat and dairy have to be carefully separated, precautions against milk-based additives have to taken. The complications can be immense. A rabbi will hire a mashgioch to do the actual supervision. The latter is supposed to call in the rabbi when a novel situation comes up. Note that the Reform movement does not mandate observance of the laws of Kashrut. Instead, it advises its members to study the laws of Kashrut and to follow those that the individual feels increases the sanctity of their life and their relationship to G-d. As a result, there are some Reform Jews who do keep kosher. Also, many Jews keep some aspect of the kosher laws, such as not eating pork or shellfish. Rabbis (and others) sometimes recommend avoiding certain food products based on concerns other than kashruth, for example: * Environmental (e.g. its manufacture harms the environment more than necessary) * Religious (e.g. a Jewish-owned bakery selling kosher food, but open on the Sabbath) * 'Tikun olam' [repairing the world] (e.g. the manufacturer complies with the Arab boycott of Israel, or mistreats its employees) Some rabbis choose not to supervise certain products based on considerations of the above sort. For those looking for the traditional point of view, there is a good, short primer at [5]http://www.ou.org/kosher/primer.html.
Subject: Question 6.2: How can I learn about Kashrut? Is there a "Kosher" FAQ? Answer: The Union of Orthodox Congregations maintains a FAQ at [5]http://www.ou.org/kosher/primer.html, which would be a good starting point. For Pesach, another good source is the Official Rabbinical Assembly Pesach Kashrut Guide at [6]http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/info/pesahguide/index.html. Some other good sites include: * Why keep kosher? From the National Jewish outreach program [7]http://www.njop.org/html/Newsletters_and_articles.html#a3. * An Introduction to the Philosophy and Laws of Immersing Vessels (traditional). [8]http://www.innernet.org.il/tevilah.htm. * The Official Masorti (Israeli Conservative) teshuva on Pesach and the use of kitniyot [9]http://www.masorti.org/responsa/kitniyot.html. Another way to learn is to read some of the books in the [10]reading list (Part 2, "Traditional"), and subscribe to some of the periodicals. In particular, we recommend the following books: [Dre59] Dresner, Samuel H; Siegel, Seymour. The Jewish Dietary Laws. Burning Bush Press, New York. 1959. United Synagogue Book Service; 1980. Paperback. ISBN 0-838121-05-5.[Conservative authorship. The book presents liberal positions on ingredients, wine, cheese, gelatin, swordfish. Among Conservative rabbis, the book reflects more lenient views.] [11][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0838121055/socculturejew ish/] [ForXX] Forst, Binyomin. The Laws Of Kashrus. Artscroll Mesorah. Hardcover. [A comprehensive exposition of their underlying concepts and application] [12][Buy at Artscroll: http://www.artscroll.com/linker/socculturejewish/ASIN/LOKH] [Gre85] Greenberg, Blu. How to Run a Traditional Jewish Household Paperback reprint edition (September 1985) Simon & Schuster (Paper); 1985; ISBN 0-671602-70-5. Jason Aronson (Hardcover); 1989; ISBN 0-876688-82-2. Paperback: [13][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0671602705/socculturejew ish] ; Hardback: [14][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0876688822/socculturejew ish] [Lip88] Lipschutz, Yacov. Kashruth: A Comprehensive Background and Reference Guide to the Principles of Kashruth (The Artscroll Series). Mesorah Publications Ltd.; 1988. Hardcover. ISBN 0-899065-58-9. [15][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0899065589/socculturejew ish/] [16][Buy at Artscroll: http://www.artscroll.com/linker/socculturejewish/ASIN/KASH] [Lub89] Lubavitch Women's Organization. Body and Soul: A Handbook for Kosher Living, Lubavitch Women's Cookbook Pub, NY. 1989. Bloch Pub Co; 1997.Paperback. ISBN 0-826602-39-8. [Short introduction to kosher basics.] [17][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0826602398/socculturejew ish/] [Lub90] Lubavitch Women's Organization: Blau, Esther; Deitsch, Tzirrel; Light, Cherna. Spice and Spirit: Complete Kosher Jewish Cookbook. Lubavitch Women's Cookbook Pub, NY, 1990, 1997. Hardcover. Reprint edition. ISBN 0-826602-38-X. [Contains detailed information about the laws of kashrut and holidays from the Lubavitch point of view and thus follows Lubavitch customs regarding Kashrut; for non-Lubavitch, use in conjunction with other Kashrut references. Lots of traditional recipes that tend not to fail, if followed. Good section on Passover baking.] [18][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/082660238X/socculturejew ish/] [Wag00] Wagschal, S. The Practical Guide to Kashruth. Philipp Feldheim; 2000. Hardcover. ISBN 0-873065-61-1. [19][Buy at Amazon: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0873065611/socculturejew ish/] Also, every Jewish household, if you're at all interested in Kashrus, should subscribe to Kashrus Magazine, published by Yeshiva Birkas Reuven. For information, contact Kashrus at P.O. Box 204, Brooklyn NY 11204. You can call (718) 336-8544 for Visa/Mastercard Orders. Email: [20]kashrus@aol.com. You can also visit the Kashrus website at [21]http://www.kashrusmagazine.com/. There are also a large number of Kosher Shopping Opportunities on the web, including [22]Kosher Supermarket ([23]http://www.koshersupermarket.com/), [24]Wholesaleportal ([25]http://www.wholesaleportal.com/), [26]Kosher Finder ([27]http://www.kosherfinder.com/), [28]Kosher Foods Depot ([29]http://www.kosherfoodsdepot.com/), [30]Kosher Cornucopia ([31]http://www.koshercornucopia.com/), [32]Kosher Club ([33]http://www.kosherclub.com), and [34]Kosher Fest ([35]http://www.kosherfest.com/).
Subject: Question 6.3: There are a wide variety of kosher symbols. How do I learn who's behind them? Answer: Every year, Kashrus Magazine publishes an index to all the Kosher symbols and the people behind them. You can reach Kashrus Magazine on the net at (<[5]http://www.kashrusmagazine.com/>).
Subject: Question 6.4: I'm going to be in (insert city here). How do I find the kosher restaurants? Answer: Shamash.org maintains a [5]database of restaurants in various cities that are kosher. This database may be found at [6]http://www.shamash.org/kosher/. The interface provides an easy to use search service for the database. There is also a link to a service that allows you to download the database to your Palm Pilot. Email inquiries on the database may be sent to the Shamash Kosher Restaurant Team at [7]kosher@shamash.org. Another possibility is KosherNIC Restaurant Index, at [8]http://www.koshernic.com. This is a searchable database of kosher restaurants around the world. It provides reviews, ratings, maps and driving directions. It is fully searchable by location, KEYWORD, Hashgacha, cuisine, etc. Some other ideas: * Call the hotel. Most large hotels, especially the chains, have provisions for providing Kosher food, given adequate notice. The hotel can tell you what it can provide. It can also provide the name of the Mashgiach (kashruth supervisor). * If the conference hotel cannot provide the services you require, then call another large chain hotel. * All hotels have the names of nearby houses of worship--and sometimes ones in other parts of town. A call to the hotel will always elicit this information, and a call to the congregation may get information not obtainable directly from the hotel. This might include contacts for minyons that have no shul, but which are within easier walking distance of the Hotel. This is also a possible source of recommendations for hotels with Kosher catering facilities, should the conference hotel not have any. It can also be as source of information on the reliability of the Mashgiach, if you require this information.
Subject: Question 6.5: Do I need to have a kosher kitchen and kosher home to keep kosher? Answer: No, all you have to do is avoid non-kosher food. Preparing kosher food in a non-kosher kitchen is possible (this arises when visiting or living with relatives who don't keep kosher) but it is much more difficult than preparing kosher food in a kosher kitchen. The practice of keeping kosher in the home, but eating non-kosher food outside the home is certainly better than eating non-kosher food all the time, but the kosher laws deal with what to eat, not where to eat it.
Subject: Question 6.6: I have heard that Polish Orthodox Jews wait 6 hours between eating milchig and fleishig and Dutch Orthodox Jews wait about an hour. Why? Answer: The waiting time is based on a discussion in the Talmud where tree different times of waiting between meat and milk are taken up as being valid. The base for the wait is the verse in the Torah saying that you should not boil the kid in its mothers milk. The question is what is really demanded. The one hour wait is based on the premise that all that is needed is for the taste to disappear from the mouth. The six hour is based on the time it was believed to take for meat to leave the stomach. There was also a twenty four hour wait, based on the meat being totally gone from the system, which has completely disappear as a custom. Note that both agree that there must be a delay, it's just that the different communities came to different conclusions about the length. It's a matter of custom. The delays selected appears to be based on the elapsed time between two meals in the respective societies. All agreed that they must not be eaten at the same meal, and "bentching", i.e. the recitation of birkat ha-mazon/Grace After Meals, was considered to be the end of a meal. German Jews wait for three hours, since a mid-afternoon snack (about 3 hours after lunch) was common practice among Jews and non-Jews in Germany. No such habit existed in Poland or Russia, hence six hours. And, you guessed it, a late-afternoon snack one hour before dinner is not entirely uncommon in Holland. The valid ones today are the one and the six hour periods. The three hours custom of the Germans is less accepted; traditionally, if a boy who keeps three hours marries a girl who keeps one hour, the custom is that he adopt the one hour wait of his wife. However, if, the boy keeps a six hour wait, the wife should change to waiting six hours. One contributor notes that some Dutch Orthodox Jews actually quickly bentched (said blessings) after the meat course on Friday night, entertained his group for one hour, and then served a dairy dessert after asking if anyone objected and being answered in the negative.
Subject: Question 6.7: Why do Sephardim and Ashkenazim have different customs regarding permissible foods on Pesach (Passover)? Answer: Both agree that Chometz products are forbidden. Ashkenazi authorities additionally forbade kitniyos, a class of foods in some ways similar to chometz, but not classified as "chometz." Kitniyos refers to grains and grain like products such as rice, millet, beans, lentils, and others. Even though these items cannot become chometz, Ashkenazim do not eat them because they are easily confused with grains that can be become chometz and may even be mixed together with them. Sephardic Jews (Jews from primarily the Middle East and Northern Africa) generally do not refrain from eating kitniyos. Possession of kitniyos is permitted according to all customs. The custom of avoiding kitnyos is mentioned for the first time in France and Provence in the beginning of the thirteenth century by R. Asher of Lunel; R. Samuel of Falaise, and R. Peretz of Corbeil - from there it spread to various countries and the list of prohibited foods continued to expand. Nevertheless, the reason for the custom was unknown and as a result many sages invented at least eleven different explanations for the custom. The most common explanation appears to be that kitnyos grains may be ground and look like flour, and that the swell in contact with water. Thus, to avoid confusion, Ashkenazi Jews avoided them. There is a long discussion of the origins of the customs and its specifics at [5]http://www.tzemachdovid.org/klh/taubes.html. For Ashkenazi Conservative Jews, the Conservative Movement has issued a tshuva stating that kitnyos may be eaten on Pesach. It can be found at [6]http://www.jtsa.edu/org/masorti/msg00085.html, and states that the custom of kitnyos is in direct contradiction to an explicit decision in the Babylonian Talmud (Pesachim 114b), as well as the opinion of all the sages of the Mishna and Talmud except one (R. Yochanan ben Nuri, Pesachim 35a and parallels). The Tshuvah also claims that it contradicts the theory and the practice of the Amoraim both in Babylonia and in Israel (Pesachim 114b and other sources), the Geonim (Sheiltot. Halakhot Pesukot,,Halaktiot Gedolot, etc.) and of most of the early medieval authorities in all countries (altogether more than 50 Rishonim!).
Subject: Question 6.8: I'm a vegetarian health-food proponent. Is kosher food healthier? Answer: We don't know. Traditional Jews keep kosher because G-d demands it of us. However, we wouldn't be at all surprised if something which G-d demands would also be good for us. Note that vegetarian food is not always kosher: there are problems with cheese, vinegar, oils, grape jelly, insects, gentile cooking, and lots more. (No, we don't mean vegetarians eat insects. But strict kashrus requires careful inspection for insects.) Side note for meat eaters: kosher meat is healthier. USDA standards are disgustingly lenient regarding the animal's health. "Sixty Minutes" once did an expose on this--many kosher butchers reported a large increase in gentile customers. Cold-water plucking helps prevent the spread of salmonella bacteria, and meat from diseased animals cannot be considered kosher. Kosher slaughter is more humane than non-kosher slaughter, as it kills the animal in a painless fashion. Although kosher slaughter does not kill the animal instantly, the animal passes out from the sudden drop in cranial blood pressure and dies in a minute or so. There is no pain. Some Jews boycott particular foods or manufacturers as a political or human rights gesture. However, even if a rabbi declares a food prohibited in his community, although it is equally as forbidden as non-kosher food, this does not affect its kosher status. (For example, utensils coming in contact with morally-forbidden products do not become non-kosher.)
Subject: Question 6.9: Is vegetarianism kosher? Answer: In principle, vegetarianism is compatible with Judaism. In fact, there are those who find reasons within Jewish thought supporting vegetarianism. However, Judaism categorically rejects the radical animal rights position that animals have the same rights as people. It should also be kept in mind that, in traditional circles at least, vegetarianism may be considered somewhat "strange". From the traditional viewpoint, vegetarianism for anything other than health reasons is not supported, for the following reasons: * "Ethical Vegetarianism" is rejected because it is G-d who allows us to eat animals. The laws of shechita (ritual slaughter) are designed to provide a compassionate way to kill the animals for eating. * Eating animals actually elevates the animal. In traditional thought, animals can only do so much. When a jew makes a blessing, eats animal products, and then uses that energy to do mitzvos, (s)he is elevating the animal to G-dliness in a way that the animal could not do itself. This is considered to be a holy endeavor, and is further detailed in the concepts of chassidus. * The torah states that "eating meat and drinking wine give a man pleasure." All festive and holiday meals have both components: they bring us gladness and enhance our simcha. One approach to addressing this is to save eating animal products for Shabbat and holidays, and eat pareve during the week. Non-traditional movements do hold with the notion of "Ethcial Kashrut". Gates of Mitzvah, the Reform guide to Mitzvot, notes: "One might opt to eat only kosher meat or even to adopt some form of vegetarianism so as to avoid the necessity of taking a life. (This would be in consonance with the principle of tsa-ar baalei chayim--prevention of cruelty to animals.)" According to most halachic authorities, when the Temple is rebuilt, all Jewish men will be obligated to partake of the paschal lamb with their families. Nothing short of a severe lamb allergy permits abstaining from this sacrificial meal (of course, it is believed that when the Temple is built, G-d will heal the sick, so the allergies will go away). There are various positions on this issue, which have been written about in Kashrus magazine and on the net. Consult your local rabbi for details. Note that, while Judaism defines animals as below humans and does not give animals the same rights as people, it does take very strong pro-animal stance. Animals must be treated with care and respect; recall that the Torah says that a hungry animal must be fed before its master.
Subject: Question 6.10: What process is involved in Kosher Slaughter? Answer: Slaughtering an animal is a complicated process. One must use an extremely sharp knife, and in a single action must slice through both the windpipe and the artery carrying blood to the head. This immediately renders the animal unconscious -- it dies before having the opportunity to feel any pain. The knife itself must be sharpened to perfection -- to the point that one cannot feel any imperfections in the blade. Otherwise the animal is rendered non-kosher. In addition, a detailed examination of the animal must be performed afterwards, to ensure that it was not sick or disabled. There is a blessing said in advance, as there is before performing any commandment, but this is not a prerequisite (and in addition, one blessing said in the morning applies to all animals a professional ritual slaughterer does that day). The word "professional" is very appropriate--it takes months of training for someone who is already a Rabbi to learn how to do this properly. The result, though, is the kosher animals are healthy and died with minimum pain.
Subject: Question 6.11: I work in a prison, and I have an inmate that is demanding Kosher Food? How do I know if his claim is justified? Answer: Inmates who were Jewish before coming to prison can usually give references from relatives, and if they were affiliated, from rabbis. One could also inquire as to whether they kept kosher before going to jail and how observant they were. Additionally, their observance level should be apparent by other practices in prison (i.e., do they attempt to observe the Shabbat?). In the UK, the official line (set by the prisons) is that if the inmate ate Kosher food outside prison, he/she has a right to it inside prison. There is at least one progressive rabbi in the UK whose rule is: If a Jewish inmate requests Kosher food, he will approve it. There are, of course, prisoners who convert to traditional Judaism. Most non-Jews who chose to convert need a Rabbi for guidance and, of course, the conversion procedures (circumcision or drawing of blood if already circumcised and immersion). Those who are Jewish and want to become more observant, can take the steps slowly and under the guidance of a rabbi, as well. If they are truly sincerely, they can begin with a vegetarian diet, and demonstrate their sincerity thourhg other Jewish practices. For example, do they keep the Sabbath, do they pray (three times) daily, do they have and put on Tephillin, do they engage in serious Jewish study, have they set about to make "Tshuvah" repentance for those they harmed that might have caused them to be incarcerated. Do they even know what Tephillin is? However, the issue is complicated. There is a halachic ruling about a person who claims to be Jewish. If he makes the claim outside of Israel, you accept him at his word since there is no advantage to be Jewish in the Diaspora. If he says he is Jewish in the land, you must question him if you are suspicious since there are advantages to be a Jew in Israel. The same should hold for a Jew in prison. Is there an advantage to be an observant Jew in prison? Would he get special privileges? If so, question him. If the party in question is a convert, ask him for the rabbinic court that presided at his conversion. What did he have to do for conversion? If it is a legitimate rabbinic court, there would be records. Ask what synagogue he was a member of before prison. You can contact that synagogue and they should know him. Ask him who was his rabbi? Ask if his family can verify his Jewishness and level of observance. Ask him if his mother was Jewish? Jewish diet is important but not the most important part of being a Jew. There are also a number of rulings that affect Jewish practice in Prison. In Ross v. Coughlin 669 F. Supp 1235 (S.D.N.Y. 1987), the key points were (1) that a prisoner can wear a beard but should shave for an ID photo; (2) yarmulke, tallith & tallith katan are allowed; and (3) Kosher food is allowed. Young v. Lane 922 F. 2d 370 (7th Cir. 1991) also ruled that a prisoner may wear yarmulka Ward v. Walsh 1 F. 3rd 873 (9th Cir. 1992) was a case where Kosher food was requested, but the request was remanded to District Court for more facts. Candles were not allowed because of security. Transferring the prisoner on Shabbat was permitted, because forcing prison not to transfer would be too much of a burden. There was also no obligation to