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...difference between verification and Validation...

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Question by nirmal
Submitted on 12/9/2003
Related FAQ: comp.software.testing Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
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What is the difference between verification and Validation in software testing



Answer by Venkat
Submitted on 12/23/2003
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Verification ensures the product is designed to deliver all functionality to the customer; it typically involves reviews and meetings to evaluate documents, plans, code, requirements and specifications; this can be done with checklists, issues lists, and walkthroughs and inspection meetings.

Validation ensures that functionality, as defined in requirements, is the intended behavior of the product; validation typically involves actual testing and takes place after verifications are completed.

 

Answer by raju
Submitted on 3/1/2004
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Uncovering of defects will be done in primary ways

Checking documents for defects(I mean to say uncovered requirements). Here no code will be executed. Before buliding actual sytem this checking will be done. This process will be called verification or Quality Assurence.

Where as Validation concern, checking will be done by executing code for errors(defects.). This also can be calles as Qulity Control.

 

Answer by Amin
Submitted on 3/3/2004
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Verification is a process in which information is checked using accurate measures. E.g. when you enter a new password you are asked to retype it to verify that the password supplied is correct.

Validation however is the automatic process in which rules are applied in order to make information correct,e.g. if the right type of data is entered in a certain cell in a database.

 

Answer by Vinod C
Submitted on 3/8/2004
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I have read an article sometime back which i found more understandable. It says,

Validation is TRUTH.
Verification is CORRECTNESS.
Then it goes on saying,
TRUTH is something absolute which cannot be interpretted differently.
Correctness is relative to the system as presented.

 

Answer by Praveen A.H
Submitted on 3/12/2004
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Right product has been built or not -  Verification

Product has been built as specified
verification

 

Answer by pomk
Submitted on 3/23/2004
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havnt got a clue

 

Answer by jagan mohan reddy
Submitted on 3/24/2004
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verification is set of activities to ensure that the function that is developing properly

validation is a different set of activities to ensure that the function that has been built is working properly.

 

Answer by dreamprince
Submitted on 5/14/2004
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(Validation)
Are we producing the right product?

(Verification)
Are we producing the product right?

                                   - Boehm

Hope you get it!

 

Answer by YSurendra Kumar
Submitted on 7/6/2004
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Verification is checking and testing of software items with the conformance with the associated specification. ex. Testing is one kind of verification.

Validation is the process of checking that what has been specified is what the user  actually wants

Regards,
YSKumar

 

Answer by Wasim
Submitted on 8/26/2004
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Verification is where you check "are you building it right". So reviews can be part of verification. Validation is where you check "have you built the product right". So testing can be part of validation.

 

Answer by sreelata
Submitted on 8/29/2004
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Verification means check the product developed is right.
Validation is the product out is same as the user requirement.

 

Answer by Mohammad A Chowdhury
Submitted on 9/8/2004
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Verification:
1. It is a Quality improvement process.
2. It is involve with the reviewing and evaluating the process.
3. It is conducted by QA team.
4. Verification is Correctness.
5. Are we producing the product right?

Validation:
1. It is ensures the functionality.
2. It is conducted by development team with the help from QC team.
3. Validation is Truth.
4. Validation is the following process of verification.
5. Are we producing the right product?

 

Answer by V.Nagaraju
Submitted on 10/6/2004
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Verification -> Checking the application whether it satisfies the specified  user requirement specification.
Validation   -> Checking the application whether it satisfies the user requirements at any time(environment changes..if any..).

 

Answer by lokesh
Submitted on 10/12/2004
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Verification is the roles and responsibilites of a QA and

validation is the roles and responsibilites of QC

 

Answer by abc
Submitted on 10/12/2004
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verification- are we building the product right


validation- are we building the right product

 

Answer by Karthikeyan.80.
Submitted on 10/25/2004
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Verification is a process which involves Reviews and Meetings to evaluate documents, Plans, Code, Requirements and Secifications; this can be done with Checklists, Issues lists, Walkthroughs and Inspection meetings.

Validation is nothing but execution of Testcases, a process to check whether the Executed and Actual results are same.


 

Answer by Anjali
Submitted on 12/7/2004
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Verification is the process confirming that something----- software-----meets its specification.

Validation is the process confirming that  it meets the user’s requirements.

 

Answer by PETER BENJAMIN
Submitted on 1/6/2005
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Verification : - Verifying whether we had created a right test case / not.
Validation : - When you implement the test case and see the results.

 

Answer by KIRAN
Submitted on 1/15/2005
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Verification typically involves reviews and meetings to evaluate documents, plans, code, requirements and specifications; this can be done with checklists, issues lists, and walkthroughs and inspection meetings.

Validation typically involves actual testing and takes place after verifications are completed.

 

Answer by karuna_1981india
Submitted on 2/4/2005
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what is integration?
on what bases cmm level is given to the company?

 

Answer by vishal jain
Submitted on 2/12/2005
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Validation is TRUTH.
Verification is CORRECTNESS.
Then it goes on saying,
TRUTH is something absolute which cannot be interpretted differently.
Correctness is relative to the system as presented verification is set of activities to ensure that the function that is developing properly

validation is a different set of activities to ensure that the function that has been built is working properly

 

Answer by chaitu
Submitted on 2/15/2005
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In software testing
The word verification resembles that all the requirements of customer is covered or not is verified for completeness.

And the word Validation resembles that all the functionalities are correctly working or not is validated for correctness.

 

Answer by venki
Submitted on 2/16/2005
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When we start to cook a chicken curry, we assume a certain smell and certain taste.We add solt and taste it, and we add pepper and taste it...this is verfication.Here you can taste any thing the curry requires..may a sour, may be a but oily and so on, by using some mesures so called walk throuh and so on.

At the end of curry preparation..I say Wow.!
This is chicken curry. This is what i expected..!. This is validation. Which validates my development product so called chicken curry.

 

Answer by alan
Submitted on 2/25/2005
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u suk

 

Answer by b
Submitted on 2/25/2005
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b is good mmmmmmmmmmmmm pie

 

Answer by sanjay jagadi
Submitted on 3/3/2005
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Software Verification is performing the tests and analyses that ensure that the products of the current phase

meet the requirements established at the beginning of the activity
are correct, complete and consistent with the previous phase
Software Validation is performing the tests and analyses to establish that the software is a correct, complete and consistent implementation of the system specifications and requirements defined by the customer.

 

Answer by ramesha
Submitted on 3/4/2005
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Verification = process oriented
Validation = product oriented

 

Answer by me_me
Submitted on 3/15/2005
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i love u all!
i think one of you will win the lottery.
so buy a ticket
serious!

 

Answer by deevan
Submitted on 3/30/2005
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verification is termed as "DOING THE RIGHT THING" for eg: the i/p value meets the requirement of the desired o/p or not

validation is termed as "DOING THE RIGHT WAY"
for eg: whether the inputs meets the standards or not.

 

Answer by Praveen
Submitted on 4/10/2005
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(verification)

The technical ascept ie syntax and semantics etc.more focused on the processing

(validation)
The functional aspect ie more focused on the output.

regards
ATP

 

Answer by Sravan
Submitted on 4/11/2005
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Verification :Check all the Business requirements were implemented
Validation :Check whether implemented Business requirements were implemented correctly.

 

Answer by Raj
Submitted on 5/13/2005
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Verification is conformance with customer specification i.e producing  the product right.

Validation is meeting the customer needs and wants i.e particular function should work like this, that etc. and also it is producing the right product.

 

Answer by Wanggy
Submitted on 5/14/2005
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Verification: check what you are doing right in process.
Validation: check your result is right in reality.

 

Answer by mani
Submitted on 5/25/2005
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verification is the process to ensure tat the software meets its requirement.

validation is the is the process to ensure tat the software meets its specifications.

 

Answer by baiju
Submitted on 6/2/2005
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verification is checking whether the right products have been built
validation is checking whether the product is built right.

 

Answer by suna
Submitted on 6/22/2005
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Verification is something we verify before implementing things using the requirements etc.

Validation is whether the things implemented satisfies the requirements.

 

Answer by Olga
Submitted on 6/22/2005
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Validation = formal, methodical test to ensure something conforms to requirement and that it is valid

Verification = based on a statement (e.g. completed checklist, attestation) that something has been done or done properly, and is therefore OK/legitimate.

For example, you validate a customer record, you verify a signature.

 

Answer by ari
Submitted on 6/29/2005
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Verfication is the process by which we check whether we have build the product right.
Validation is the process of determining whether we have bulid the right product..It can also be defined in case of a web application as the process of entering the right type of data in a particular for e.g if we are to enter numerical value for a particular field in a page we should not be allowed to enter alphabets....

 

Answer by ari
Submitted on 6/29/2005
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Verfication is the process by which we check whether we have build the product right.
Validation is the process of determining whether we have bulid the right product..It can also be defined in case of a web application as the process of entering the right type of data in a particular for e.g if we are to enter numerical value for a particular field in a page we should not be allowed to enter alphabets....

 

Answer by Jifi
Submitted on 7/11/2005
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standards and procedures

testing

 

Answer by Nauman
Submitted on 7/15/2005
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Verification: Is the product delivering all functionality that client asked for.

Validation: Are all the functions working properly.

Validation is done after Verification.

 

Answer by M Poojari
Submitted on 7/22/2005
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Verfication is a process of verifying each component of the application which is to be tested to be available as per the specifications in it's specification document.

Validation is a process of actually entering or submitting a data in your application and checking to see if it's actual result matches the expected result.

 

Answer by Rajarshi
Submitted on 7/25/2005
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Verification means to check whether all the requirements of the client are included in the development of the system. There is no execution of code which means that it does not look whether a specific part of the  system works exactly according to the corresponding specified requirement. Instead it only sees whether every part of requirement has a corresponding part in the system or not.

whereas validation checks whether every part of the system is built according to it's corresponding requirement or not. It executes the system to see if it's intended behavior tallies with the required intended behavior.

 

Answer by azhar mabagotob
Submitted on 9/1/2005
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validation is not verification.

 

Answer by maduraivelmurugan
Submitted on 9/21/2005
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Verification : is a QA process
Validation : is QC process i.e Testing

 

Answer by richard
Submitted on 9/26/2005
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Verification: make sure you have done the thing right.

Validation: make sure you have done the right thing.

 

Answer by Adnan
Submitted on 10/7/2005
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Validation

”Are we producing the right product”?

If we are in a shopping centre and buy a thing with a code number 2342 and when we go to till and they check the number of that item and find it right then we can say that this product is valid.

Verification

”Are we producing the product right”?

If we are in a shopping centre and buy a thing with a code number 2342 and when we go to till and they check the number of that item and find it wrong then system will check all product number of the relevant number but don’t find any number of this kind then we can say that the verify thing is wrong.

 

Answer by ut
Submitted on 11/8/2005
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t7u77695879y

 

Answer by nagendra
Submitted on 11/21/2005
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Validation :To check weather it meets requirement specification or not.
Validation: to check weather it meets user requirements or not

 

Answer by Neelima N
Submitted on 11/25/2005
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Verification method is to ensure the system complies with an organization's standards and processes, relying on review or non executable methods.

Validation physically ensures that the system operates according to the plan by executing the system functions through a series of tests that can be observed and evaluated.

 

Answer by praveen reddy
Submitted on 11/29/2005
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verification:
       system is right or wrong

validation:
        system is write or wrong with respect to customer's requirements

 

Answer by Rev
Submitted on 12/1/2005
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Verification : Verify a system is conform to its specification & Validation is whether a system is conform to to its code or design/architecture or not.

 

Answer by Hitesh Sharma
Submitted on 12/2/2005
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Verification : Are we building the product right ?

Validation : Are we building the right product ?

 

Answer by M.Ragothaman
Submitted on 12/8/2005
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Validation
  product build as per the requirement.

Verification
product build to meet the requirement.

 

Answer by sree
Submitted on 12/27/2005
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Verification means something like, Are we giving all the parameters for that particular functionality as per the requirements. i.e. v r just verifying the data

where as validation means testing that the functionality functions as per the requirements . i.e. v r validating the data

 

Answer by Rama
Submitted on 12/29/2005
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Verification means checking a product/project manually by verifying the documents,reviewing the code and so on.

Validation in the seance Giving actual input's to the system and observing the outputs in all angles.This is final testing which has to go on very consciously.

 

Answer by Sanjay
Submitted on 1/19/2006
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Product verification is a set of measures applied before the product is put to use to ensure that the intended features are built into the product.

Validation is a (runtime) process when the user validates the product against the requirement and confirms that the product is valid for use.

 

Answer by tranhiep@yahoo.com
Submitted on 2/14/2006
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Below is list of steps for building a product...
1. Achieve a signed requirement (maybe a correct or incorrect requirement) from customer.
2. Analyze the signed requirements and designed functions.
3. Implement designed functions
4. Test implemented functions

Validation is a process, which performs testing to ensure designed functions meeting to customer's requirements.

Verification is a process, which performs testing to ensure implemented functions meeting to designed functions.

 

Answer by M7X3R
Submitted on 3/10/2006
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Verification: Are we building the product right? (conformation to previous workflows)


Validation: Are we building the right product? (Meets client/customer needs)

 

Answer by Shona
Submitted on 3/24/2006
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Verification: Refers to set of activities that ensure that software correctly implements a function

Validation:Refers to a different set of activites that ensur the siftware that has been built is traceable to customer requirements

 

Answer by Geoffduke
Submitted on 3/28/2006
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The generic use of the term 'Validation' is descriptive of the process of executing challenges that provides evidence that the actual documented requirements have been met.

Verification affirms that specified parameters have been challenged against the documented specifications which will have started off with the Requirements Specification, but may not necessarily have ended up meeting the requirements.

Note that the term 'Validation' is often applied, especially in the pharmaceutical industry, as a term that describes the process of procuring evidence that the integrity of the item under consideration meets expectations in terms of correctness, completeness, 'credibleness', 'timeliness' and readiness. The question "is it validated?"  in the pharmaceutical industry means "is there a complete suite of approved documentation that provides evidence that activities which were planned, are complete and that sufficient evidence exists to support this.

  

 

Answer by Adnan Ghafoor
Submitted on 3/31/2006
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Validation:
The Validation technique refers to the process of evaluating a software product at the end of its development stage to ensure that it is free from failures, and complies with the requirements.

Verification:
The Verification technique refers to the process of determining whether the products of a given phase of a software development process fulfill the requirements established.

 

Answer by Mark King
Submitted on 4/4/2006
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A good (and practical) example of the difference between the two is provided at the following link:

http://www.edstrom.com/Update.cfm?doc_id=359

 

Answer by Sandeep
Submitted on 4/5/2006
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Verification is always done for Processes as it checks whether all the requirements are covered in the process.
Verification is the approach by which we asses that the product is developed in right way.

Validation on the other hand ensures that we are building the right product.
It checks the product/project development against requirements.

 

Answer by Hari
Submitted on 4/12/2006
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Are we doing the right job is defined as validation.
Are we doing the job right is defined as verification

 

Answer by dream_gurl233
Submitted on 4/20/2006
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Validation is about making sure that the data entered is sensible and possible and within reasonable bounds.

Verification is used to check that data is entered correctly and that there are no transcription errors.

 

Answer by Yahya
Submitted on 5/3/2006
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I'm a software engineer.
Validation is testing if we are building the right product. Therefore it(the product) must be tested whether it meets the user requirements or not.

Verification is testing if we are building the product right. Therefore it must be tested whether it(the product) is being done in a correct way and depending on standards or not.

 

Answer by ruchi
Submitted on 5/4/2006
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Verification ensures that the system (Hardware, Software and Documentation) complies with the organization standards.

Validation ensures that the system operates according to the plan and this is done by executing a series of test cases that can be observed and evaluated.

 

Answer by lala
Submitted on 6/8/2006
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Validation = well organised,well documented ,common sense.

verification = Is the process of formally proving that a computer program does exactly what is stated in the program specification

 

Answer by venki
Submitted on 6/9/2006
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verifiaction is the process of examining the process we r following and whether we r building the product right

validation is the process of examining the code for correct functionality and it satisfies the customer requirements and whether we r building the right product

 

Answer by              
Submitted on 6/13/2006
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Answer by Jatin
Submitted on 6/20/2006
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Well Verification & Validation goes hand in hand to cover the defects in the system & to check whether the system is working as required.
Verification is asking ourself 'are we building the product right ?'.It ensures that ,the product is designed to deliver all functionality .This can be achieved through structural reviews & walkthrpughs, formal meetings, checklist, issuelist.

Validation is asking ourself 'are we building the right product ?'.It ensures that system functionality is the intented behaviour of user requirement.It involves actual testing of system.

 

Answer by ..hi..
Submitted on 7/5/2006
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what is the difference between database verification and database validation?

 

Answer by Prakash Liya
Submitted on 8/2/2006
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Verification - The software should conform to it's specification.

Validation - The software should do what the user really requires.

 

Answer by Prakash Liya
Submitted on 8/2/2006
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Verification is the process of determining whether the output of a life cycle phase fulfills the requirements specified in the previous phase.

Validation is the process of confirming that the specification of a phase or of the complete system is appropriate and is consistent with the customer requirements.

 

Answer by ashok
Submitted on 8/3/2006
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verificaton is nothing but a static
for example its a documentation one
validation is nothing but dynamic
for example its a work sheet

 

Answer by ashish
Submitted on 8/19/2006
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verification is process of verifying that software meets its owns requirement or not



validation  is process of verifying that software meets user  requirement or not

 

Answer by Bijay Kumar from MIT
Submitted on 8/21/2006
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Verifications refers to the set of activities that ensure that software correctly implements a specific function.

While  Validation refers to a different set of activities that ensure that the software that has been built is traceable to customer requirements.

 

Answer by gracyvivek
Submitted on 8/23/2006
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verification is the defects which is begining to the testing.


validation means after varification and find the defects

 

Answer by Taner Sumesaglam
Submitted on 8/23/2006
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I found this explanation by googling:

Verification takes place before validation, and not vice versa.

Verification evaluates documents, plans, code, requirements, and specifications. Validation, on the other hand, evaluates the product itself.

The inputs of verification are checklists, issues lists, walkthroughs and inspection meetings, reviews and meetings. The input of validation, on the other hand, is the actual testing of an actual product.

The output of verification is a nearly perfect set of documents, plans, specifications, and requirements document. The output of validation, on the other hand, is a nearly perfect, actual product.

 

Answer by DanSAS
Submitted on 8/28/2006
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Verification: An activity that insures that the selected design solution satisfies the detailed technical "requirements".
verification Asks - Did you build the product right? Did you meet requirements?

Validation: (1)An activity that ensures that a set of technical "requirements" is consistent and complete with respect to parent "requirements". (2)An activity that ensures that an end product stakeholders true needs and expectations have been met. (3)An activity that demonstrates that an end product fulfills it's intended use when placed in it's intended environment. Validation asks - Did you build the right product? Did you meet the operational needs?

 

Answer by Naresh
Submitted on 9/5/2006
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Validation Example: When you use the Add button in a calculator, it should add!

Verification Example: When you perform the addition of 5+5 on a calculator, it should display the result as 10.

 

Answer by rajesh chauhan
Submitted on 9/18/2006
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verification assures that the developed application is meeting its specification.
validation assures that the developed application is meeting its requirments.

 

Answer by sireesha
Submitted on 9/27/2006
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Verification sees whether the we are building a right system.

Validation sees whether we are building the system right.

validation process comes after the verification process.

 

Answer by Akshaya ku padhi
Submitted on 10/5/2006
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Verification is checking and testing of software items with the conformance with the associated specification. ex. soppose to instal a stater part in a car and to see whether it properly instal or not.
Validation is the process of checking that what has been specified is what the user  actually wants.Eg. To start car whether it start properly or not  

Tegards
Akshaya

 

Answer by Saswata Mukherje
Submitted on 10/14/2006
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1. Verification is 'Static Testing' i.e. testing the application without providing any input to the system.

2. Validation is 'Dynamic Testing' i.e. providing the some input to the application to compare the actual output with the expected output.

Conclusion: 1. Verification signifies presentation of the application.
            2. Validation signifies execution of the application.

 

Answer by MEEEEE!!!!
Submitted on 12/3/2006
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAHHHHH!!!!

 

Answer by crazy
Submitted on 12/7/2006
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Thanks..

i have exam today....

 

Answer by v.sridhar
Submitted on 12/14/2006
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what is the difference between verification and testing?

 

Answer by yogesh
Submitted on 12/15/2006
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verification is the process of evaluating the functional requirement from client.

validation is the process after verification means the software meets user specification or not(Actual testing process)

 

Answer by Mukesh Raghav
Submitted on 12/28/2006
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Verification & Validation:          

Verification is the checking or testing of items including software for conformance and consistency with an associated specification.
                                            While Validation is the process of checking that what has been Specified is what the user actually wanted.

 

Answer by Ahsan
Submitted on 1/23/2007
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Verification takes place before validation.

Verified(Verification) software/product is error free, there is no error in your product but if the result doesn't come what customer wants is not the valid(Validation) software. So create and modify the software product in such a way so as to satisfy the customer expectations. This is what validation is all about.

If your software compile and execute sucessfully and there is no error and exception occur during runtime it means your software is verified(Verification).

 

Answer by Santosj
Submitted on 2/12/2007
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Validation is directly propotional to data in terms of the software  
Verification is directly propotional to al functionality

 

Answer by Surya
Submitted on 2/20/2007
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Verification is the process of checking whether the product is being developed correctly as per the requirements using reviews,meetings,Inspection of work products.

Validation is the process of checking whether the developed product is as per the requirement

 

Answer by joe elson
Submitted on 3/13/2007
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im gayy

 

Answer by Abha
Submitted on 3/15/2007
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Verification is the part of static testing and it helps to verify whether the software functioning as per the specification/requirement or not.

Validation is the part of Dynamic testing and this is done to verify whether the software meets the client expectation or not.

 

Answer by Amaresh
Submitted on 3/16/2007
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Verification means to verify what is built is correct or not
Validation means to validate the product.

 

Answer by Anshul Bahre
Submitted on 3/21/2007
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Verification “Did we build the right system?”

validations “Did we build the system
right?”

 

Answer by Suds
Submitted on 3/24/2007
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Verification---Are we making the right product?

Validation---Are we making the Product right?

 

Answer by Suganthakumar
Submitted on 3/26/2007
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Verification ensures that the final product satisfies or matches the original design (low-level checking) — i.e., you built the product right.
Validation checks that the product design satisfies or fits the intended usage (high-level checking) — i.e., you built the right product.
According to the Capability Maturity Model (CMMI-SW v1.1), “Verification confirms that work products properly reflect the requirements specified for them. In other words, verification ensures that ‘you built it right’. Validation confirms that the product, as provided, will fulfill its intended use. In other words, validation ensures that ‘you built the right thing’”.

 

Answer by shirisha
Submitted on 4/14/2007
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VERIFICATION:this is going on QA side.it cheks all documents bofore develop the code.

VALIDATION:this comes under the QC.

 

Answer by Harsha
Submitted on 4/19/2007
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Verification:
Verification is used to check that data is entered correctly and that there are no transcription errors.

Validation:
Validation is about making sure that the data entered is sensible and possible and within reasonable bounds.

 

Answer by somu0312
Submitted on 4/24/2007
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WOW!! here he have people giving exactly opposite answers to the same question. I'm still not convinced, one way or the other. But Confused, yes.

 

Answer by Rajan Kumar
Submitted on 4/26/2007
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Verification takes place before validation, and not vice versa
Verification evaluates documents, plans, code, requirements, and specifications. Validation, on the other hand, evaluates the product itself.
The inputs of verification are checklists, issues lists, walkthroughs and inspection meetings, reviews and meetings. The input of validation, on the other hand, is the actual testing of an actual product.
The output of verification is a nearly perfect set of documents, plans, specifications, and requirements document. The output of validation, on the other hand, is a nearly perfect, actual product.

 

Answer by Jagadeesh Medabalimi
Submitted on 5/3/2007
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Another view...

Verification is to ensure that the way the system built is correct.

Validation is to ensure that the system built is correct.

 

Answer by Sanjay Singh Dagur
Submitted on 5/3/2007
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Verification is examination of process & validation is execution of process.
Verification is nothing but the static testing & validation is nothing but the dynamic testing.

 

Answer by prasad_tavva
Submitted on 5/9/2007
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Verification - Reviews, Inspections and Walkthroughs, Unit testing

Validation - User Acceptance Testing

Integration testing, System Testing might come under Verification.

 

Answer by Venkat
Submitted on 5/16/2007
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Verification:
"Are we building the product right?"
The software should conform to its specifications.

Validation:
"Are we building the right product?"
The software should do what the user really requires.

 

Answer by Chetan
Submitted on 5/17/2007
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Software Verification and Validation (V&V) is the process of ensuring that software being developed or changed will satisfy functional and other requirements (validation) and
Each step in the process of building the software yields the right products (verification).

 

Answer by srinath
Submitted on 6/27/2007
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verification is nothing but checking the software with user specifications.

validation is nothing but checking whether software is working right.


 

Answer by tester
Submitted on 6/29/2007
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verification is generally a theoretical concept which is being conformed through validation i.e by actually testing for what are theoretically written

 

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